Alexandra Volcanic Group

Alexandra Volcanic Group (including Okete volcanic field)
Alexandra Volcanic Group (including Okete volcanic field)
	Map of selected volcanic features of the Alexandra Volcanic Group and Okete volcanic field. Clicking on the map enlarges it, and enables mouseover of volcano feature/wikilink and ages if available in brackets. The type of basaltic volcanic eruption (some are composite over their eruptive history) is indicated by red being arc basalts, pink being ring basalts of stratovolcanoes and brown being intra-arc basalts typical of those produced by monogenetic volcanic fields. Approximate location of characterised vents are black rectangles with red centres.'"`UNIQ--ref-00000001-QINU`"''"`UNIQ--ref-00000002-QINU`"''"`UNIQ--ref-00000003-QINU`"''"`UNIQ--ref-00000004-QINU`"' For wider context see map at North Island Surface Volcanism.
Highest point
Coordinates	37°59′35″S174°59′0″E / 37.99306°S 174.98333°E
Geography
	Alexandra Volcanic Group (including Okete volcanic field)
Geology
Age of rock	Miocene to Pliocene(2.74–0.9 Ma ) PreꞒ Ꞓ O S D C P T J K Pg N ↓
Mountain type	Volcanic field
Type of rock	Basalt
Last eruption	0.9 Ma

Last updated January 05, 2024

The Alexandra Volcanic Group (also known as Alexandra volcanic lineament or Alexandra Volcanics) is a chain of extinct calc-alkalic basaltic stratovolcanoes that were most active between 2.74 and 1.60 million years ago but is now known to have had more recent activity between 1.6 and 0.9 million years ago.^[1] They extend inland from Mount Karioi near Raglan with Mount Pirongia being the largest,^[3] with Pukehoua on the eastern slopes of Pirongia, Kakepuku, Te Kawa, and Tokanui completing the definitive lineament. The associated, but usually separated geologically basaltic monogenetic Okete volcanic field (also known as the Okete Volcanic Formation or Okete Volcanics), lies mainly between Karioi and Pirongia but extends to the east and is quite scattered.

Geology

The chain extends in the Alexandra volcanic lineament, an alignment striking north-west to south-east over 60 km (37 mi) in length and is an example of backarc, intraplate basaltic volcanism that is very rare on land.^[1] This is because the arc basalts are in a very close relationship to a basaltic intraplate monogenetic volcanic field, the Okete which also erupted in late Pliocene times (2.7-1.8 million years ago).^[4] The separation of the two fields because of the different basalt composition was first proposed in 1983.^[5] The arc-type lavas of the Alexandra Volcanic Group are mainly ankaramite, a type of basalt found typically in some South Pacific Ocean Islands and not within continental crust.^[1] There are at least 27 vents in the Okete volcanic field, with most being in the northwest near the eastern flanks of Karioi.^[1] Only a few sites globally have island arc basalt and intraplate ocean island basalt so associated.^[1] The first stage of activity that finished about 1.9 million years ago produced all the volcanoes of both the Alexandra volcanic lineament and the monogenetic Okete volcanic field. Karioi is the oldest at 2.48 to 2.28 ± 0.07 million years ago on unmodified chronology.^[6] Pirongia has at least six edifice-forming vents separated by features including those resulting from large volume collapse events.^[3]^[7] The second stage was confined to Pirongia and consisted of basaltic eruptions between 1.6 and 0.9 million years ago during the period that the South Auckland volcanic field and Mangakino caldera complex were active.^[1] The arc basalt volcano remnants at Tokanui are a small mound that rises about 30 m (98 ft) within higher rolling hills of the Puketoka and Karapiro Formations.^[5] There has been much progress over the last decade in characterising Karioi, Pirongia and a separate arc basaltic centre at Pukehoua incorporated into the eastern slopes of Pirongia. The small basaltic centre at Kairangi is likely the furthest east point of the Okete volcanic field, but there is the possibility from drill sampling in the Hamilton Basin that other basaltic volcanoes exist that are subsurface now.^[1]

Tectonics

To its west, under the Tasman Sea are the even older volcanoes associated with the Northland-Mohakatino volcanic belt (Mohakatino Volcanic Arc) which are of a subduction-related origin^[2] but which include the still active Mount Taranaki at the southern end of this belt. The Taranaki Fault is between the two sets of volcanoes. To the south east are more back arc volcanoes including now the volcanoes of the Taupō Volcanic Zone which have now been continuously active for over 2 million years. Between Karioi and Pirongia the highland terrain of the Karioi horst block is interrupted by the mongenic volcanoes of Okete volcanic field. The lineament then extends into the Hamilton Basin, a major rift-related depression bound by the Waipa Fault Zone with the arc basaltic volcanoes of Pukehoua, Kakepuku, Te Kawa, Tokanui. Kairangi is the furtherist to the east and has been dated at 2.62 ± 0.17 million years ago.^[1]

Relations to other volcanic activity

Other basaltic volcanic fields that are also now thought to represent Auckland Volcanic Province intraplate volcanism active in the Pleistocene are adjacent in a more recent to the north trend from the Alexandra Volcanic Group through to the Ngatutura volcanic field which was active between 1,830,000 and 1,540,000 years ago, the South Auckland volcanic field which erupted between 550,000 and 1,600,000 years ago,^[2] and the very recently active but presently dormant younger Auckland volcanic field.^[8] These locations fit with the trend being related to the opening of the Hauraki Rift in the Miocene and/or fracturing of the lithosphere.^[9] At the same approximate time the Alexandra Volcanic Group was initially active to its east in Zealandia the Tauranga Volcanic Centre was active.^[1]

Details of some volcanoes

More age data is accessible for individual basalts/vents by enabling mouseover in the interactive map of the field in the infobox.

Volcanoes	Age (million years)	Height	Location (Coordinates)	Refs	Images
Karioi	2.92 - 2.16 Ma	756 metres (2,480 ft)	37°52′S174°49′E / 37.867°S 174.817°E / -37.867; 174.817	^[10]^[11]	Karioi behind Raglan and Whaingaroa Harbour.
Pirongia	2.74 - 0.9 Ma	959 metres (3,146 ft)	37°59′35.19″S175°5′52.27″E / 37.9931083°S 175.0978528°E / -37.9931083; 175.0978528	^[1]	View from the west of Mount Pirongia which is the largest volcano in the Alexandra Volcanic Group. To the left of this view are some of the vents of the Okete volcanic field. The foreground hills over the water of Aotea Harbour are non-volcanic in the Karioi horst block.
Kakepuku	2.35 - 2.70 Ma	449 metres (1,473 ft)	38°3′57.51″S175°14′59.6358″E / 38.0659750°S 175.249898833°E / -38.0659750; 175.249898833	^[10]	Kakepuku with Te Kawa behind.
Te Kawa	2.21 Ma	214 metres (702 ft)	38°04′52″S175°17′39″E / 38.0810681°S 175.2940750°E / -38.0810681; 175.2940750	^[10]	View towards west of Te Kawa tuff ring, Kakepuku (middle distance) and Pirongia at horizon

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Auckland volcanic field</span> Volcanic field in New Zealand

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The volcanism of New Zealand has been responsible for many of the country's geographical features, especially in the North Island and the country's outlying islands.

The Auckland Region of New Zealand is built on a basement of greywacke rocks that form many of the islands in the Hauraki Gulf, the Hunua Ranges, and land south of Port Waikato. The Waitākere Ranges in the west are the remains of a large andesitic volcano, and Great Barrier Island was formed by the northern end of the Coromandel Volcanic Zone. The Auckland isthmus and North Shore are composed of Waitemata sandstone and mudstone, and portions of the Northland Allochthon extend as far south as Albany. Little Barrier Island was formed by a relatively isolated andesitic volcano, active around 1 to 3 million years ago.

The Waikato and King Country regions of New Zealand are built upon a basement of greywacke rocks, which form many of the hills. Much of the land to the west of the Waikato River and in the King Country to the south has been covered by limestone and sandstone, forming bluffs and a karst landscape. The volcanic cones of Karioi and Pirongia dominate the landscape near Raglan and Kawhia Harbours. To the east, the land has been covered with ignimbrite deposits from the Taupō Volcanic Zone. Large amounts of pumice from the Taupō Volcanic Zone have been deposited in the Waikato Basin and Hauraki Plains.

Ōrākei Basin is a tidal basin and one of the extinct volcanoes in the Auckland volcanic field in the North Island of New Zealand. It has an explosion crater around 700 m (2,300 ft) wide, with a surrounding tuff ring. The present basin is slightly larger than the original maar crater. Sediments in the basin provided the first high-resolution palaeo-environmental reconstruction for northern New Zealand of the last 130,000 years. The basin supports recreational water sports activities for the local population.

The Dunedin Volcano is an extensively eroded multi-vent shield volcano that was active between 16 and 10 million years ago. It originally extended from the modern city of Dunedin, New Zealand to Aramoana about 25 km away. Extensive erosion has occurred over the last 10 million years and Otago Harbour now fills the oldest parts of the volcano. The remnants of the volcano form the hills around Otago Harbour.

Karioi or Mount Karioi is a 2.4 million year old extinct stratovolcano 8 km (5.0 mi) SW of Raglan in the Waikato region of New Zealand's North Island. It was the earliest of the line of 6 calcalkalic volcanoes, the largest of which is Mount Pirongia. Karioi forms a background to many parts of Raglan.

Kakepuku is a volcanic cone which rises from the plain between the Waipā and Puniu rivers, about 3 km (2 mi) NW of Te Kawa and 8 km (5 mi) SW of Te Awamutu in the Waikato region of New Zealand's North Island.

Te Kawa is a rural community in the Ōtorohanga District and Waikato region of New Zealand's North Island. It lies just to the south of the volcanic hills of Kakepuku and Te Kawa. Until the swamp was drained in the 1900s, Te Kawa was well known for its eels.

The Kaitake Range, like the neighbouring Pouakai Range, is an eroded and heavily vegetated stratovolcano that formed during the Pleistocene epoch in the Taranaki region of New Zealand. Kaitake is the northwesternmost of the stratovolcanoes in the region. It is about 500,000 years old and last erupted around 350,000 years ago. Its final collapse about 250,000 years ago appears to have been potentially associated with a collapse event of the Pouakai volcano.

The South Auckland volcanic field, also known as the Franklin Volcanic Field, is an area of extinct monogenetic volcanoes around Pukekohe, the Franklin area and north-western Waikato, south of the Auckland volcanic field. The field contains at least 82 volcanoes, which erupted between 550,000 and 1,600,000 years ago.

The extinct Ngatutura volcanic field that was active between 1.54 and 1.83 million years ago is one of four volcanic fields in an intraplate back arc relationship with the still active Hauraki Rift and the presently dormant Auckland volcanic field. The other volcanic fields, which are part of the Auckland Volcanic Province, are the oldest, Okete to the south near Raglan in late Pliocene times. and to the north the younger South Auckland volcanic field.

The Tauranga Volcanic Centre is a geologic region in New Zealand's Bay of Plenty. It extends from the southern end of Waihi Beach and from the old volcanoes of the Coromandel Peninsula that make up the northern part of the Kaimai Range, towards the Taupō Volcanic Zone.

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References

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Pittari, Adrian; Prentice, Marlena L.; McLeod, Oliver E.; Zadeh, Elham Yousef; Kamp, Peter J. J.; Danišík, Martin; Vincent, Kirsty A. (2021). "Inception of the modern North Island (New Zealand) volcanic setting: spatio-temporal patterns of volcanism between 3.0 and 0.9 Ma" (PDF). New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics. 64 (2–3): 250–272. doi:10.1080/00288306.2021.1915343. S2CID 235736318.
1 2 3 Bischoff, Alan; Barriera, Andrea; Begg, Mac; Nicola, Andrew; Colea, Jim; Sahoo, Tusar (2020). "Magmatic and Tectonic Interactions Revealed by Buried Volcanoes in Te Riu-a-Māui/Zealandia Sedimentary Basins". New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics. 63: 378–401. doi:10.1080/00288306.2020.1773510. S2CID 221380777.
1 2 McLeod, OE; Pittari, A; Brenna, M; Briggs, RM (2020). Geology of the Pirongia Volcano, Waikato:1:30,000 Geological Map in The Pirongia Volcano. Geoscience Society of New Zealand Wellington, New Zealand. ISBN 978-0-473-52832-4.
↑ Nemeth, Karoly; Kereszturi, Gabor; Agustín-Flores, Javier; Briggs, Roger Michael (2012). "Field Guide Monogenetic volcanism of the South Auckland and Auckland Volcanic Fields" . Retrieved 2 November 2022.
1 2 Briggs, R. M. (1983). "Distribution, form, and structural control of the Alexandra Volcanic Group, North Island, New Zealand". New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics. 26 (1): 47–55. doi:10.1080/00288306.1983.10421521.
↑ Goles, G. G.; Briggs, R. M.; Rosenberg, M. D. (1996). "Late Pliocene stratigraphic succession and volcanic evolution of Karioi volcano, western North Island, New Zealand". New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics. 39 (2): 283–294. doi: 10.1080/00288306.1996.9514712 .
↑ McLeod, Oliver Emerson; Pittari, Adrian. "A channelized debris-avalanche deposit from Pirongia basaltic stratovolcano, New Zealand". Geological Society, London, Special Publications. doi:10.1144/sp520-2020-222 . Retrieved 19 January 2023.
↑ Briggs, R. M.; Itaya, T.; Lowe, D. J.; Keane, A. J. (1989). "Ages of the Pliocene-Pleistocene Alexandra and Ngatatura Volcanics, western North Island, New Zealand, and some geological implications". New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics. 32 (4): 417–427. doi: 10.1080/00288306.1989.10427549 . hdl: 10289/5260 .
↑ Le Corvec, Nicolas; Bebbington, Mark S.; Lindsay, Jan M.; McGee, Lucy E. (2013). "Age, distance, and geochemical evolution within a monogenetic volcanic field: Analyzing patterns in the Auckland Volcanic Field eruption sequence". Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems. 14 (9): 3648–3665. doi: 10.1002/ggge.20223 . S2CID 130368256.
1 2 3 Briggs, R. M.; Itaya, T.; Lowe, D. J.; Keane, A. J. (1989). "Ages of the Pliocene—Pleistocene Alexandra and Ngatutura Volcanics, western North Island, New Zealand, and some geological implications". New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics. 32 (4): 417–427. doi:10.1080/00288306.1989.10427549. hdl: 10289/5260 .
↑ "Mount Karioi, Waikato". NZ Topo Map.

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[Pittari2021-1] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Pittari, Adrian; Prentice, Marlena L.; McLeod, Oliver E.; Zadeh, Elham Yousef; Kamp, Peter J. J.; Danišík, Martin; Vincent, Kirsty A. (2021). "Inception of the modern North Island (New Zealand) volcanic setting: spatio-temporal patterns of volcanism between 3.0 and 0.9 Ma" (PDF). New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics. 64 (2–3): 250–272. doi:10.1080/00288306.2021.1915343. S2CID 235736318.

[Bischoff2021-2] 1 2 3 Bischoff, Alan; Barriera, Andrea; Begg, Mac; Nicola, Andrew; Colea, Jim; Sahoo, Tusar (2020). "Magmatic and Tectonic Interactions Revealed by Buried Volcanoes in Te Riu-a-Māui/Zealandia Sedimentary Basins". New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics. 63: 378–401. doi:10.1080/00288306.2020.1773510. S2CID 221380777.

[McLeod2020-3] 1 2 McLeod, OE; Pittari, A; Brenna, M; Briggs, RM (2020). Geology of the Pirongia Volcano, Waikato:1:30,000 Geological Map in The Pirongia Volcano. Geoscience Society of New Zealand Wellington, New Zealand. ISBN 978-0-473-52832-4.

[Nemeth2012-4] Nemeth, Karoly; Kereszturi, Gabor; Agustín-Flores, Javier; Briggs, Roger Michael (2012). "Field Guide Monogenetic volcanism of the South Auckland and Auckland Volcanic Fields" . Retrieved 2 November 2022.

[Briggs1983-5] 1 2 Briggs, R. M. (1983). "Distribution, form, and structural control of the Alexandra Volcanic Group, North Island, New Zealand". New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics. 26 (1): 47–55. doi:10.1080/00288306.1983.10421521.

[Goles1996-6] Goles, G. G.; Briggs, R. M.; Rosenberg, M. D. (1996). "Late Pliocene stratigraphic succession and volcanic evolution of Karioi volcano, western North Island, New Zealand". New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics. 39 (2): 283–294. doi: 10.1080/00288306.1996.9514712 .

[MP2020-7] McLeod, Oliver Emerson; Pittari, Adrian. "A channelized debris-avalanche deposit from Pirongia basaltic stratovolcano, New Zealand". Geological Society, London, Special Publications. doi:10.1144/sp520-2020-222 . Retrieved 19 January 2023.

[Briggs89-8] Briggs, R. M.; Itaya, T.; Lowe, D. J.; Keane, A. J. (1989). "Ages of the Pliocene-Pleistocene Alexandra and Ngatatura Volcanics, western North Island, New Zealand, and some geological implications". New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics. 32 (4): 417–427. doi: 10.1080/00288306.1989.10427549 . hdl: 10289/5260 .

[Le_Corvec2013-9] Le Corvec, Nicolas; Bebbington, Mark S.; Lindsay, Jan M.; McGee, Lucy E. (2013). "Age, distance, and geochemical evolution within a monogenetic volcanic field: Analyzing patterns in the Auckland Volcanic Field eruption sequence". Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems. 14 (9): 3648–3665. doi: 10.1002/ggge.20223 . S2CID 130368256.

[Briggs1989-10] 1 2 3 Briggs, R. M.; Itaya, T.; Lowe, D. J.; Keane, A. J. (1989). "Ages of the Pliocene—Pleistocene Alexandra and Ngatutura Volcanics, western North Island, New Zealand, and some geological implications". New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics. 32 (4): 417–427. doi:10.1080/00288306.1989.10427549. hdl: 10289/5260 .

[11] "Mount Karioi, Waikato". NZ Topo Map.

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