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 China |  Angola |
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Relations between Angola and China predate the former's independence. Today, they are based on an emerging trade relationship. As of 2021, Angola was China's third-largest trading partner in Africa. [1] The two countries announced a comprehensive strategic partnership in 2024.
During Kenya's independence ceremonies in 1963, Foreign Minister of the People's Republic of China Chen Yi told Jonas Savimbi, the Secretary-General of the Union of Peoples of Northern Angola, that his country would give the UPNA (a founding group of the FNLA) "large-scale military aid". Three years later, UNITA separatists formerly part of the FNLA, led by Savimbi, attacked Portuguese workers in Cassamba. Armed with only ten NATO 7.62 rifles, purchased with Chinese aid, the attack failed to stop timber operations and Portuguese colonial authorities killed several UNITA members. [2]
During Angola's war of independence against Portugal during the 1960s and 1970s, China provided assistance to Angola's nationalist movements. China initially backed the MPLA, but later began to support FNLA and UNITA as well. As China's relationship with the Soviet Union soured, the MPLA's relationship with the Soviet Union strengthened, and China pulled its support. [3] In 1974, China provided weapons and instructors to the FNLA, as well as arms to UNITA. After the Carnation Revolution in Portugal that effectively ended the colonizer's influence in Angola, China warned all of Angola's three liberation movements "against meddling by external forces." When Angola descended into civil war in 1975, China continued to back the FNLA and UNITA, but drew back as the MPLA gained power. [4]
On its 2017 medical mission to Africa, the People's Liberation Army Navy hospital ship Peace Ark traveled to Angola. [5] : 284
Following Angola's independence, China struggled to normalize relations with the new MPLA government throughout the 1970s, as tensions with the Soviet Union (who backed the MPLA) remained high. In 1982, however, the People's Republic of China announced its support of, and desire to normalize relations with, Angola's government. [4] The Angolan People's Republic established relations with the People's Republic of China on January 12, 1983. [5] : 348
On March 15, 2024, Angola and China upgraded their bilateral relationship to a comprehensive strategic partnership. [6]
Chinese Prime Minister Wen Jiabao visited Angola in June 2006, offering a US$9 billion loan for infrastructure improvements in return for petroleum. The PRC has invested heavily in Angola since the end of the civil war in 2002. [7]
João Manuel Bernardo, the current ambassador of Angola to China, visited the PRC in November 2007. [8]
In March 2024, Angolan President João Lourenço visited China. [6] During the visit, the two countries announced the upgrading of bilateral relations to a comprehensive strategic partnership. [6]
On December 3, 1975, a meeting occurred between U.S. and Chinese officials, including Vice-Premier Deng Xiaoping, Foreign Minister Qiao Guanhua, President Gerald Ford, Secretary of State Henry Kissinger, National Security Advisor Brent Scowcroft and head of the U.S. Liaison Office in Peking George H. W. Bush. Discussions entailed who should support FNLA or UNITA, by which means and in what manner, considering the sensitivities of neighboring countries such as Zaire and South Africa. China still supported the FNLA and UNITA against the MPLA. Chinese officials asked about the United States' continued participation in Angola via South Africa, which resulted in Kissinger responding that the US is prepared to "push out South Africa as soon as an alternative military force can be created". Ford then said: "We had nothing to do with the South African involvement and we will take action to get South Africa out, provided a balance can be maintained for their not being in." He also said that he had approved US$35 million more in support of the north above what had been done before. [9]
President of Angola Agostinho Neto condemned the Chinese invasion of Vietnam in February 1979. [10]
On August 25, 2012, 37 Chinese nationals, arrested in Angola due to their alleged involvement in criminal acts against fellow Chinese expatriates, were extradited and due to be tried in China. [11] [12]
The Angolan People's Republic first established formal trade relations with China in June 1984. This was followed by aid packages to Angola in 1984 and 1985, including a donation from China of equipment for Angola's ports. [4]
Angola and China both participate in the multi-lateral group Forum Macao, which China formed in 2003 to increase economic and commercial cooperation between China and the Portuguese-speaking countries. [5] : 62
As of 2007, Angola was China's biggest trading partner in Africa. [13] Trade between the two countries was worth US$24.8 billion in 2010. [14]
Since then, Angola's trading power with China has waned. In 2011 and in the first 8 months of 2012 Angola was the second largest trading partner of China in Africa, after South Africa. [15] In 2016, the worth of trade between the two countries had declined to US$15.6 billion; Chinese exports to Angola amounted to US$1.68 billion and Angolan exports to China amounted to US$13.97 billion. [16] Angola is now China's third-largest trading partner in Africa. [1]
In 2009, Chinese private investment in Angola reached over US$166 million. [17]
Angola first sought development money from China after the Angolan Civil War had come to an end. [18] : 88–89 Angola had previously sought International Monetary Fund (IMF) for assistance in 2001, but was unwilling to accept the conditions placed on the aid money by the IMF. [19] Likewise, Angola would not accept the conditions of Paris Club funding. [18] : 99 The Angolan government also declined to allow importation of genetically modified agricultural products, which further stalled aid from international organizations. [18] : 99
Beginning in 2002, China built infrastructure including roads and hospitals in Angola in exchange for reduced-price oil, and exchange which benefitted both countries. [20] : 86
From first Forum on China Africa Cooperation conference in 2000 to 2013, Beijing has completed $465 million of official development finance projects in Angola (financial amounts normalized in 2009 dollars). [21] This includes a $90 million loan from the Exim Bank of China for the rehabilitation of the Luanda railway and the construction of a 45 km electricity distribution line between Quifangondo and Mabubas. [22] Angola has also received a $1 billion oil-backed line of credit for the China Exim bank to repair the country's infrastructure. [23]
Exim Bank was willing to offer loans in U.S. dollars. [18] : 99
Between 2000 and 2014, China loaned US$21.2 billion to Angola, mostly in the form of resource-backed loans. [24] These exchanges of infrastructure for resources have helped enhance the fiscal capacity of Angola's government. [18] : 101 Another estimate states that the amount of Chinese investment in Angola tallied US$24.7 billion from 2005 to 2020. [25]
During the COVID-19 pandemic, Chinese creditors provided Angola with a three-year moratorium on its loan payments. [26] Payments resumed during an economic slowdown in Angola. [26] In 2024, state-owned China Development Bank agreed to release US$1.5 billion in loan collateral deposited by Angola back to Angola, for the country to use in making its loan payments. [26]
Academic Deborah Brautigam writes that the model of China's aid to Angola is an improvement to the general international aid regime, because China's model of infrastructure-for-resources indirectly guarantees that resources result in public benefits, instead of being siphoned off for the benefit of elites. [18] : 101
Since the early 2000s, Angola has consistently remained a key producer of oil for China. In 2006, Angola briefly became China's top supplier of oil, surpassing Saudi Arabia. [27] As of 2020, Angola is the fifth-largest provider of oil imports to China. [28]
As part of its financial lending to Angola, China has provided oil-backed loans to the country, which are guaranteed to be repaid by the proceeds of Angola's oil sales from its state-owned oil company, Sonangol. These loans were primarily used for infrastructure development in Angola, with one agreement stipulating that 70% of the services used to build the infrastructure had to be contracted from China. [29] As of 2010, over four hundred state and private Chinese companies were operating in Angola. [30] This practice has been criticized by scholars as being "neo-imperial" in nature, or a new economic form of colonialism. [31]
These infrastructure projects funded by Chinese oil-backed loans triggered investment and growth in some domestic sectors of Angola's economy. As the domestic market grew during the 2010s, Angola's government moved to protect its local agricultural and food and beverage production industries in order to further enhance economic growth at home. [24]
With the ascension of João Lourenço as president of Angola, relations have cooled. Lourenco promised to diversify his country's economy and reduce its dependence on China. [32]
As of 2016, an estimated 53,000 Chinese citizens were living and working in Angola; other estimates fall in the range of 100,000 to 250,000 people. [33] The estimated population peaked at around 300,000. [32] At the end of 2019, the number of Chinese workers in Angola was down to 22,868; it is theorized that this number fluctuates based on changes in commodity prices. [25] Angolan public opinion on China, as gleaned from an analysis of internet commentary in the early 2010s, is reportedly mixed. One study theorizes that singular negative incidents, however minor, have sometimes propagated negative stereotypes towards Chinese migrants living in Angola, particularly in regards to China becoming a neo-colonial power in Angola. [33]
China has an extradition treaty with Angola. [5] : 188
Angola, officially the Republic of Angola, is a country on the west-central coast of Southern Africa. It is the second-largest Lusophone (Portuguese-speaking) country in both total area and population and is the seventh-largest country in Africa. It is bordered by Namibia to the south, the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the north, Zambia to the east, and the Atlantic Ocean to the west. Angola has an exclave province, the province of Cabinda, that borders the Republic of the Congo and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The capital and most populous city is Luanda.
Angola was first settled by San hunter-gatherer societies before the northern domains came under the rule of Bantu states such as Kongo and Ndongo. In the 15th century, Portuguese colonists began trading, and a settlement was established at Luanda during the 16th century. Portugal annexed territories in the region which were ruled as a colony from 1655, and Angola was incorporated as an overseas province of Portugal in 1951. After the Angolan War of Independence, which ended in 1974 with an army mutiny and leftist coup in Lisbon, Angola achieved independence in 1975 through the Alvor Agreement. After independence, Angola entered a long period of civil war that lasted until 2002.
The National Union for the Total Independence of Angola is the second-largest political party in Angola. Founded in 1966, UNITA fought alongside the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) in the Angolan War for Independence (1961–1975) and then against the MPLA in the ensuing civil war (1975–2002). The war was one of the most prominent Cold War proxy wars, with UNITA receiving military aid initially from the People's Republic of China from 1966 until October 1975 and later from the United States and apartheid South Africa while the MPLA received support from the Soviet Union and its allies, especially Cuba.
The People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola, for some years called the People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola – Labour Party, is an Angolan social democratic political party. The MPLA fought against the Portuguese Army in the Angolan War of Independence from 1961 to 1974, and defeated the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) and the National Liberation Front of Angola (FNLA) in the Angolan Civil War. The party has ruled Angola since the country's independence from Portugal in 1975, being the de facto government throughout the civil war and continuing to rule afterwards.
The National Front for the Liberation of Angola is a political party and former militant organisation that fought for Angolan independence from Portugal in the war of independence, under the leadership of Holden Roberto.
The Angolan Civil War was a civil war in Angola, beginning in 1975 and continuing, with interludes, until 2002. The war began immediately after Angola became independent from Portugal in November 1975. It was a power struggle between two former anti-colonial guerrilla movements, the communist People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) and the anti-communist National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA).
Angola and the United States have maintained cordial diplomatic relations since 1993. Before then, antagonism between the countries hinged on Cold War geopolitics, which led the U.S. to support anti-government rebels during the protracted Angolan Civil War.
The Cuban intervention in Angola began on 5 November 1975, when Cuba sent combat troops in support of the communist-aligned People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) against the pro-western National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) and National Liberation Front of Angola (FNLA). The intervention came after the outbreak of the Angolan Civil War, which occurred after the former Portuguese colony was granted independence after the Angolan War of Independence. The civil war quickly became a proxy war between the Eastern Bloc led by the Soviet Union and the Western Bloc led by the United States. South Africa and the United States backed UNITA and the FNLA, while communist nations backed the MPLA.
During Angola's civil war, Cuban forces fought alongside the Marxist–Leninist People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) government; against the Western-backed National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) and National Liberation Front of Angola (FNLA) guerrillas who were aided by the South-African army. The present day outcome of the war resulted in the MPLA changing from a Marxist–Leninist party to a multi-party democratic system based on neoliberal principles. From an economic standpoint, Cuba has lost its preferred status among Angolans and South Africa has become the biggest single investor and trading partner with Angola.
The People's Republic of Angola was the self-declared socialist state which governed Angola from its independence in 1975 until 25 August 1992, during the Angolan Civil War.
The Export–Import Bank of China is a policy bank of China under the State Council. Established in 1994, the bank was chartered to implement the state policies in industry, foreign trade, economy, and foreign aid to other developing countries, and provide policy financial support so as to promote the export of Chinese products and services.
China–Seychelles relations refer to bilateral relations between China and Seychelles. China has an embassy in Victoria and Seychelles has an embassy in Beijing and a consulate in Shanghai.
Central African Republic–People's Republic of China relations refer to the bilateral relations of the Central African Republic and the People's Republic of China. Diplomatic relations between China and the Central African Republic were established on September 29, 1964, when the CAR's government severed diplomatic relations with the Republic of China (Taiwan). The Central African Republic has an embassy in Beijing whilst China has an embassy in Bangui.
Botswana - People's Republic of China relations refers to the current and historical relationship between the Botswana and the People's Republic of China. Relations were first established on 6 January 1975. In 2010, upon the 35th anniversary of relations being formalized, the relationship between the two states was considered "strong" and "rapidly growing" by then Chinese ambassador to Botswana, Liu Huanxing. Botswana follows the One China Policy which means Botswana does not have relations with the Republic of China (Taiwan). Following the 2008 Sichuan earthquake in China, the Botswana government donated one million pula.
China and Cameroon established bilateral relations on March 26, 1971. Cameroon is an adherent to the One China Policy.
China–Eritrea relations refers to the current and historical relationship between China and Eritrea. Eritrea gained independence from Ethiopia in 1993 and, as of 2007, relations between the two states registered "smooth growth".
People's Republic of China – Zambia relations refers to the current and historical relationship between the People's Republic of China (PRC) and Zambia.
China-Ghanaian relations refer to the current and historical relationship between the Republic of Ghana and the People's Republic of China (PRC).
China–Sierra Leone relations refer to the foreign relations between China and Sierra Leone. The People's Republic of China and the Republic of Sierra Leone established diplomatic relations on July 29, 1971. China has an embassy in Freetown, while Sierra Leone has an embassy in Beijing.
China–Ivory Coast relations refer to the foreign relations between China and Ivory Coast. They established the diplomatic relations on March 2, 1983.
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