 | This article needs additional citations for verification .(June 2019) |
| Sound change and alternation |
|---|
| Fortition |
| Dissimilation |
In linguistics, apophony (also known as ablaut, (vowel) gradation, (vowel) mutation, alternation, internal modification, stem modification, stem alternation, replacive morphology, stem mutation, or internal inflection) is an alternation of vowel (quality) within a word that indicates grammatical information (often inflectional).
Apophony is exemplified in English as the internal vowel alternations that produce such related words as
The difference in these vowels marks variously a difference in tense or aspect (e.g. sing/sang/sung), transitivity (rise/raise), part of speech (sing/song), or grammatical number (goose/geese).
That these sound alternations function grammatically can be seen as they are often equivalent to grammatical suffixes (an external modification). Compare the following:
| Present tense | Past tense |
|---|---|
| jump | jumped |
| sing | sang |
| Singular | Plural |
| book | books |
| goose | geese |
The vowel alternation between i and a indicates a difference between present and past tense in the pair sing/sang. Here the past tense is indicated by the vowel a just as the past tense is indicated on the verb jump with the past tense suffix -ed. Likewise, the plural suffix -s on the word books has the same grammatical function as the presence of the vowel ee in the word geese (where ee alternates with oo in the pair goose/geese).
Consonants, too, can alternate in ways that are used grammatically. An example is the pattern in English of verb-noun pairs with related meanings but differing in voicing of a postvocalic consonant:
| Verb voiced | Noun unvoiced |
|---|---|
| advise | advice |
| believe | belief |
| breathe (phonetically: /briːð/ ) | breath (phonetically: /brɛθ/ ) |
| give | gift |
| house (phonetically: /haʊz/ ) | house (phonetically: /haʊs/ ) |
| live | life |
| rive | rift |
| use (phonetically: /juːz/ ) | use (phonetically: /juːs/ ) |
| weave | weft |
| wreathe (phonetically: /riːð/ ) | wreath (phonetically: /riːθ/ ) |
Most instances of apophony develop historically from changes due to phonological assimilation that are later grammaticalized (or morphologized) when the environment causing the assimilation is lost. Such is the case with English goose/geese and breath/breathe.
Apophony may involve various types of alternations, including vowels, consonants, prosodic elements (such as tone, syllable length), and even smaller features, such as nasality (on vowels).
The sound alternations may be used inflectionally or derivationally. The particular function of a given alternation will depend on the language.
Apophony often involves vowels. Indo-European ablaut (English sing-sang) and Germanic umlaut (goose-geese), mentioned above, are well attested examples. Another example is from Dinka: [1]
| Singular | Plural | Gloss | Vowel alternation |
|---|---|---|---|
| dom | dum | 'field/fields' | (o-u) |
| kat | kɛt | 'frame/frames' | (a-ɛ) |
The vowel alternation may involve more than just a change in vowel quality. In Athabaskan languages, such as Navajo, verbs have series of stems where the vowel alternates (sometimes with an added suffix) indicating a different tense-aspect. Navajo vowel ablaut, depending on the verb, may be a change in vowel, vowel length, nasality, and/or tone. For example, the verb stem kaah/-ką́ 'to handle an open container' has a total of 16 combinations of the 5 modes and 4 aspects, resulting in 7 different verb stem forms (i.e. -kaah, -kááh, -kaał, -kááł, -ka’, -ká, -ką́).
| Imperfective | Perfective | Progressive- future | Usitative- iterative | Optative | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Momentaneous | kaah | ką́ | kááł | kááh | kááł |
| Continuative | ká | ką́ | kaał | kaah | kaał |
| Distributive | ka’ | ką́ | kaał | kaah | ka’ |
| Conative | kááh | - | - | - | - |
Another verb stem | -géésh/-gizh 'to cut' has a different set of alternations and mode-aspect combinations, resulting in 3 different forms (i.e. -géésh, -gizh, -gish):
| Imperfective | Perfective | Progressive- future | Usitative- iterative | Optative | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Momentaneous | géésh | gizh | gish | gish | géésh |
| Continuative | gizh | gizh | gish | gish | gizh |
| Semelfactive | gish | gish | gish | gish | gish/géésh |
Various prosodic elements, such as tone, syllable length, and stress, may be found in alternations. For example, Vietnamese has the following tone alternations which are used derivationally: [2]
| tone alternation | ||
|---|---|---|
| đây 'here' | đấy 'there' | (ngang tone–sắc tone) |
| bây giờ 'now' | bấy giờ 'then' | (ngang tone–sắc tone) |
| kia 'there' | kìa 'yonder' | (ngang tone–huyền tone) |
| cứng 'hard' | cửng '(to) have an erection' | (sắc tone–hỏi tone) |
Albanian uses different vowel lengths to indicate number and grammatical gender on nouns: [3]
| [ɡuːr] "stone" | [ɡur] "stones" |
| [dy] "two (masculine)" | [dyː] "two (feminine)" |
English has alternating stress patterns that indicate whether related words are nouns (first syllable stressed) or verbs (second syllable stressed). This tends to be the case with words in English that came from Latin:[ citation needed ]
| noun | verb |
|---|---|
| cóntrast | contrást |
| cónvict | convíct |
| ínsult | insúlt |
| óbject | objéct |
| pérmit | permít |
| pérvert | pervért |
| récord | recórd |
| súbject | subjéct |
Prosodic alternations are sometimes analyzed as not as a type of apophony but rather as prosodic affixes, which are known, variously, as suprafixes, superfixes, or simulfixes.
Consonant alternation is commonly known as consonant mutation or consonant gradation. Bemba indicates causative verbs through alternation of the stem-final consonant. Here the alternation involves spirantization and palatalization: [4]
| Intransitive verb | Causative verb |
|---|---|
| luba 'to be lost' | lufya 'to cause to be lost' |
| koma 'to be deaf' | komya 'to cause to be deaf' |
| pona 'to fall' | ponya 'to cause to fall' |
| enda 'to walk' | endesha 'to cause to walk' |
| lunga 'to hunt' | lunsha 'to cause to hunt' |
| kula 'to grow' | kusha 'to cause to grow' |
Celtic languages are well known for their initial consonant mutations.
In Indo-European linguistics, ablaut is the vowel alternation that produces such related words as sing, sang, sung, and song. The difference in the vowels results from the alternation (in the Proto-Indo-European language) of the vowel e with the vowel o or with no vowel.
To cite a few other examples of Indo-European ablaut, English has a certain class of verbs, called strong verbs, in which the vowel changes to indicate a different grammatical tense-aspect.
| Imperative | Preterite | Past participle | Vowel alternation |
|---|---|---|---|
| swim | swam | swum | (i-a-u) phonetically: /ɪ-æ-ʌ/ |
| fall | fell | fallen | (a-e-a) phonetically: /ɔː-ɛ-ɔː/ |
| drive | drove | driven | (i-o-i) phonetically: /aɪ-oʊ-ɪ/ |
As the examples above show, a change in the vowel of the verb stem creates a different verb form. Some of the verbs also have a suffix in the past participle form.
In Indo-European linguistics, umlaut is the vowel fronting that produces such related words as foot > feet or strong > strength. The difference in the vowels results from the influence of an /i/ , /iː/ or /j/ (which in most cases has since been lost) at the end of the word causing the stem vowel to be pulled forward. Some weak verbs show umlaut in the present tense, with the past tense representing the original vowel: bought > buy ( /ɔː/ > /aɪ/ ). Hundreds of similar examples can be found in English, German, Dutch and other languages.
Germanic a-mutation is a process analogous to umlaut, but involving the influence of a low vowel such as /ɑ/ causing a high vowel in the stem to lower.
In Indo-European historical linguistics the terms ablaut and umlaut refer to different phenomena and are not interchangeable. Ablaut is a process that dates back to Proto-Indo-European times, occurs in all Indo-European languages, and refers to (phonologically) unpredictable vowel alternations of a specific nature. From an Indo-European perspective, it typically appears as a variation between o, e, and no vowel, although various sound changes result in different vowel alternations appearing in different daughter languages. Umlaut, meanwhile, is a process that is particular to the Germanic languages and refers to a variation between back vowels and front vowels that was originally phonologically predictable, and was caused by the presence of an /i/ or /j/ in the syllable following the modified vowel.
From a diachronic (historical) perspective, the distinction between ablaut and umlaut is very important, particularly in the Germanic languages, as it indicates where and how a specific vowel alternation originates. It is also important when taking a synchronic (descriptive) perspective on old Germanic languages such as Old English, as umlaut was still a very regular and productive process at the time. When taking a synchronic perspective on modern languages, however, both processes appear very similar. For example, the alternations seen in sing/sang/sung and foot/feet both appear to be morphologically conditioned (e.g. the alternation appears in the plural or past tense, but not the singular or present tense) and phonologically unpredictable.
By analogy, descriptive linguists discussing synchronic grammars sometimes employ the terms ablaut and umlaut, using ablaut to refer to morphological vowel alternation generally (which is unpredictable phonologically) and umlaut to refer to any type of regressive vowel harmony (which is phonologically predictable). Ambiguity can be avoided by using alternative terms (apophony, gradation, alternation, internal modification for ablaut; vowel harmony for umlaut) for the broader sense of the words.
Stem modifications (i.e. apophony) may co-occur with other morphological processes, such as affixation. An example of this is in the formation of plural nouns in German:
| Singular | Plural |
|---|---|
| Buch 'book' | Bücher 'books' |
| Haus 'house' | Häuser 'houses' |
Here the singular/plural distinction is indicated through umlaut and additionally by a suffix -er in the plural form. English also displays similar forms with a -ren suffix in the plural and a -en suffix in the past participle forms along with the internal vowel alternation:
| child (singular) /tʃaɪld/ | children (plural) /ˈtʃɪldrən/ |
| drive (imperative) /draɪv/ | driven (past participle) /ˈdrɪvən/ |
Chechen features this as well:
| Singular | Plural |
|---|---|
| лам lam 'mountain' | лаьмнашlämnaš 'mountains' |
| мотт mott 'language' | меттанашmettanaš 'languages' |
A more complicated example comes from Chickasaw where the positive/negative distinction in verbs displays vowel ablaut along with prefixation (ak-) and infixation (-'-):
| Positive | Negative |
|---|---|
| hilhali 'I'm dancing' | akhi'lho 'I'm not dancing' |
The nonconcatenative morphology of the Afroasiatic languages is sometimes described in terms of apophony. [5] The alternation patterns in many of these languages is quite extensive involving vowels and consonant gemination (i.e. doubled consonants). The alternations below are of Modern Standard Arabic, based on the root k–t–b 'write' (the symbol ⟨ː⟩ indicates gemination on the preceding consonant):
| Word | Gloss | Alternation pattern |
|---|---|---|
| kataba | 'he wrote' | (a-a-a) |
| kutiba | 'it was written' | (u-i-a) |
| yaktubu | 'he writes' | (ya-∅-u-u) |
| yuktabu | 'it is written' | (yu-∅-a-u) |
| kaatib | 'writing (active participle); writer' | (aa-i) |
| kuttaab | 'writers' | (u-ːaa) |
| maktuub | 'written' | (ma-∅-uu) |
| kitaabah | '(act of) writing' | (i-aa-ah) |
| kitaab | 'book' | (i-aa) |
| kutub | 'books' | (u-u) |
| kaataba | 'he corresponded with' | (aa-a-a) |
| kattaba | 'he caused to write' | (a-ːa-a) |
| kuttiba | 'he was caused to write' | (u-ːi-a) |
Other analyses of these languages consider the patterns not to be sound alternations, but rather discontinuous roots with discontinuous affixes, known as transfixes (sometimes considered simulfixes or suprafixes ). Some theoretical perspectives call up the notion of morphological templates or morpheme "skeletons".
It would also be possible to analyze English in this way as well, where the alternation of goose/geese could be explained as a basic discontinuous root g-se that is filled out with an infix -oo- "(singular)" or -ee- "(plural)". Many would consider this type of analysis for English to be less desirable as this type of infixal morphology is not very prevalent throughout English and the morphemes -oo- and -ee- would be exceedingly rare.
Another analytical perspective on sound alternations treats the phenomena not as merely alternation but rather a "replacive" morpheme that replaces part of a word. In this analysis, the alternation between goose/geese may be thought of as goose being the basic form where -ee- is a replacive morpheme that is substituted for oo.
This usage of the term morpheme (which is actually describing a replacement process, and not a true morpheme), however, is more in keeping with Item-and-Process models of morphology instead of Item-and-Arrangement models.
Ablaut reduplication, or ablaut-motivated compounding, is a type of word formation of "expressives" (such as onomatopoeia or ideophones). Examples of these in English include:
Generally, English ablaut-reduplications follow an I-A-O order (tic-tac-toe) or I-A order (snip-snap). This is a generalization and not a rule as exceptions to this order do exist (tick-tock).
Many Turkic languages have the vowel alternation pattern of "low vowel - high vowel" in their reduplicatives, e.g. Turkish çak-çuk. [6] [7] [8]
Here the words are formed by a reduplication of a base and an alternation of the internal vowel.
Some examples in Japanese:
Some examples in Chinese:
In linguistics, an allomorph is a variant phonetic form of a morpheme, or in other words, a unit of meaning that varies in sound and spelling without changing the meaning. The term allomorph describes the realization of phonological variations for a specific morpheme. The different allomorphs that a morpheme can become are governed by morphophonemic rules. These phonological rules determine what phonetic form, or specific pronunciation, a morpheme will take based on the phonological or morphological context in which it appears.
The Germanic umlaut is a type of linguistic umlaut in which a back vowel changes to the associated front vowel (fronting) or a front vowel becomes closer to (raising) when the following syllable contains, , or.
In linguistics, an alternation is the phenomenon of a morpheme exhibiting variation in its phonological realization. Each of the various realizations is called an alternant. The variation may be conditioned by the phonological, morphological, and/or syntactic environment in which the morpheme finds itself.
Linguistics is the scientific study of human language. Someone who engages in this study is called a linguist. See also the Outline of linguistics, the List of phonetics topics, the List of linguists, and the List of cognitive science topics. Articles related to linguistics include:
In linguistics, the Indo-European ablaut is a system of apophony in the Proto-Indo-European language (PIE).
In linguistics, reduplication is a morphological process in which the root or the stem of a word, or even the whole word, is repeated exactly or with a slight change.
In the Germanic languages, weak verbs are by far the largest group of verbs, and are therefore often regarded as the norm. They are distinguished from the Germanic strong verbs by the fact that their past tense form is marked by an inflection containing a, , or sound rather than by changing the verb's root vowel.
Proto-Germanic is the reconstructed proto-language of the Germanic branch of the Indo-European languages.
Consonant mutation is change in a consonant in a word according to its morphological or syntactic environment.
The Germanic language family is one of the language groups that resulted from the breakup of Proto-Indo-European (PIE). It in turn divided into North, West and East Germanic groups, and ultimately produced a large group of mediaeval and modern languages, most importantly: Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish (North); English, Dutch and German (West); and Gothic.
Nonconcatenative morphology, also called discontinuous morphology and introflection, is a form of word formation and inflection in which the root is modified and which does not involve stringing morphemes together sequentially.
Eastern Pomo, also known as Clear Lake Pomo, is a nearly extinct Pomoan language spoken around Clear Lake in Lake County, California by one of the Pomo peoples.
Tübatulabal is an Uto-Aztecan language, traditionally spoken in Kern County, California, United States. It is the traditional language of the Tübatulabal, who still speak the traditional language in addition to English. The language originally had three main dialects: Bakalanchi, Pakanapul and Palegawan.
Proto-Indo-European nominals include nouns, adjectives, and pronouns. Their grammatical forms and meanings have been reconstructed by modern linguists, based on similarities found across all Indo-European languages. This article discusses nouns and adjectives; Proto-Indo-European pronouns are treated elsewhere.
The roots of the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European language (PIE) are basic parts of words to carry a lexical meaning, so-called morphemes. PIE roots usually have verbal meaning like "to eat" or "to run". Roots never occurred alone in the language. Complete inflected verbs, nouns, and adjectives were formed by adding further morphemes to a root and potentially changing the root's vowel in a process called ablaut.
In linguistic morphology, inflection is a process of word formation in which a word is modified to express different grammatical categories such as tense, case, voice, aspect, person, number, gender, mood, animacy, and definiteness. The inflection of verbs is called conjugation, while the inflection of nouns, adjectives, adverbs, etc. can be called declension.
Old Norse has three categories of verbs and two categories of nouns. Conjugation and declension are carried out by a mix of inflection and two nonconcatenative morphological processes: umlaut, a backness-based alteration to the root vowel; and ablaut, a replacement of the root vowel, in verbs.
Proto-Tocharian, also spelled Proto-Tokharian, is the reconstructed proto-language of the extinct Tocharian branch of the Indo-European languages.
Historical linguistics has made tentative postulations about and multiple varyingly different reconstructions of Proto-Germanic grammar, as inherited from Proto-Indo-European grammar. All reconstructed forms are marked with an asterisk (*).
The grammar of Old Saxon is highly inflected, similar to that of Old English or Latin. As an ancient Germanic language, the morphological system of Old Saxon is similar to that of the hypothetical Proto-Germanic reconstruction, retaining many of the inflections thought to have been common in Proto-Indo-European and also including characteristically Germanic constructions such as the umlaut. Among living languages, Old Saxon morphology most closely resembles that of modern High German.
