Augusta Declaration

Last updated

Augusta Declaration
CreatedBefore May 10, 1776
PresentedMay 10, 1776
LocationUnknown (presumed lost)
Author(s) Thomas Lewis,
Sampson Mathews,
Samuel McDowell, et al.
PurposeTo create a permanent and independent union of states and national government separate from Great Britain

The Augusta Declaration, or the Memorial of Augusta County Committee, May 10, 1776, was a statement presented to the Fifth Virginia Convention in Williamsburg, Virginia on May 10, 1776. The Declaration announced the necessity of the Thirteen Colonies to form a permanent and independent union of states and national government separate from Great Britain, with whom the Colonies were at war.

Contents

When the Fifth Virginia Convention assembled on May 6, 1776, independence was a leading issue. Several of the delegates had already been instructed by their counties to pursue independence, and others had come with resolutions for independence in hand. The Augusta Declaration was the first official statement on the subject, being introduced by Thomas Lewis, on behalf of the Augusta County, Virginia Committee of Safety on May 10. Five days later, on May 15, the Convention declared Virginia wholly independent of Great Britain, and called for state papers (a declaration of rights and constitution), foreign alliances, and a confederation of the colonies. These resolutions were forwarded to the Second Continental Congress and introduced as the Lee Resolution, which initiated the drafting of the United States Declaration of Independence, the Model Treaty (foreign policy), and the Articles of Confederation (the first U.S. constitution), respectively.

While legislation from various American counties and colonies had called for or emboldened independence from Great Britain, none had done so while proposing either a formal union of the colonies as states or a national government. The Augusta Declaration called for both, which the colonies would go on to adopt in the creation of the United States of America under the Articles and, ultimately, the United States Constitution. Virginia history scholar Hugh Blair Grigsby states the Augusta Declaration "deserves to be stereotyped as the Magna Charta of the West" for its precedent in calling for this governmental mode. [1]

The document is presumed to be a lost work, with only an abstract surviving in the notations of the official journal of the Fifth Virginia Convention.

The Augusta Declaration

On May 10, 1776, Thomas Lewis introduced the Augusta Declaration to the Fifth Virginia Convention on behalf of the Augusta County, Virginia Committee of Safety. Specifics of the declaration are unknown, as it is currently lost. [2] The abstract of the document was recorded in the journal of the Convention as such:

A representation from the committee of the county of Augusta was presented to the Convention, and read: setting forth the present unhappy situation of the country, and, from the ministerial measures of vengeance now pursuing, representing the necessity of making the confederacy of the United Colonies the most perfect, independent, and lasting; and of framing an equal, free, and liberal government, that may bear the test of all future ages.

This was the first official proposal for the creation of a permanent and independent union of states and national government from any of the Thirteen Colonies. [3] [4] [5]

Fifth Virginia Convention

The Fifth Virginia Convention convened on May 6, 1776. There were three parties present. The first was mainly made up of wealthy planters, who sought to continue their hold on local government as it had grown up during colonial Virginia's history. These included Robert Carter Nicholas Sr. who opposed the Declaration of Independence from King George. This party, which saw little to gain and much to lose from a separation from Great Britain, dominated the convention by a malapportionment that lent an advantage to the slaveholding east. [6] The second party was made up of the intellectuals of the Enlightenment: lawyers, physicians and "aspiring young men". These included the older generation of George Mason, George Wythe, and Edmund Pendleton, and the younger Thomas Jefferson and James Madison. [7] The third, "radical party," was a minority of young men mainly from western Virginia, some of whom had supported independence earlier than 1775. [8] The Augustans were from this party, with Thomas Lewis and Samuel McDowell serving as delegates.

When the convention began, three counties (Cumberland, Charlotte, and James City) [9] [10] [11] had already drafted resolutions for independence. Delegates from several others had come to Williamsburg with prepared statements on the issue, while most others had come knowing the question would be addressed. [12] Over the first several sessions, the Convention dealt with matters largely related to the ongoing war effort. [13] On May 10, the fifth session of the Convention, Thomas Lewis introduced the Augusta Declaration on behalf of the Augusta County Committee of Safety. This was the first statement on the issue of independence during this Convention, and would influence final resolution on the subject. [14] [15] On May 14, the Convention resolved itself into a committee to debate the question of independence in full. [16] The following day, May 15, the committee came to a unanimously agreement "to propose to Congress to declare the United Colonies free and independent States, absolved from all allegiance to, or dependence upon, the Crown or Parliament of Great Britain".

The Convention adopted resolutions calling for:

With this, Virginia became the first colony to instruct its delegates in Congress to introduce both a resolution for independence and a federal union of the colonies. [17] The last resolution, specifically, was responsive to the Augusta Declaration. [18]

On to Congress

These resolutions were forwarded to Richard Henry Lee, the Virginia representative to the Continental Congress, who introduced them to that body on June 7, almost verbatim:

Resolved, That these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States, that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved.

That it is expedient forthwith to take the most effectual measures for forming foreign Alliances.

That a plan of confederation be prepared and transmitted to the respective Colonies for their consideration and approbation. [19]

The Congress organized into groups to draft statements for each resolution. These efforts resulted in the creation of the United States Declaration of Independence, July 4, 1776; the Model Treaty (foreign policy), September 17, 1776; and the Articles of Confederation (first U.S. constitution), March 1, 1781. [20]

Augusta County Committee of Safety

Background

After Parliament closed the ports of Boston and passed the Intolerable Acts to punish Massachusetts for the Boston Tea Party, the Virginia House of Burgesses organized a protest as a show of solidarity with Boston. In response, Virginia royal governor Lord Dunmore dissolved the House of Burgesses. The burgesses then formed the extralegal Virginia Conventions in place of the dissolved House, scheduling the first session for August 1. [21] Augusta County's elected delegates for this session, Samuel McDowell and George Mathews, did not attend the first of these Conventions, likely due to the recent end of Dunmore's War in which the Augusta County militia was heavily involved. [22] [23] For the remaining conventions, Augusta County sent Thomas Lewis and Samuel McDowell as their delegates.

In October, 1774, the First Continental Congress directed that a committee of safety be appointed in "every county, city, and town" for the primary reason of monitoring imports and exports to ensure compliance with a boycott of British goods. [24] Over the next year the roles of the county committees expanded to include the raising of militia units, providing local government, and implementing and upholding new policy from the Continental Congress. [25]

The Augusta Resolves

The first recorded action of the Augusta County Committee of Safety was a patriotic meeting taking place on February 22, 1775 in Staunton, Virginia, which resulted in the drafting of the Augusta Resolves. These resolves stated the intent of the Augustans to support the Continental Congress, to pledge 'life and fortune' in preservation of their natural liberties, and to ally with "all British America" in securing these liberties. [26] The Augusta Resolves, along with the resolutions of nearby Fincastle, Botetourt, and Pittsylvania counties, were the most significant of the second of two broad waves of resolutions passed by nearly every Virginia county from summer 1774 through winter 1775, and were unique in demonstrating a national scope that previous resolutions had not. [27] The Augusta County committee's revolutionary activity continued throughout the next year, organizing militia and functioning as an extralegal local government. The Virginia committees of safety were replaced with standard courts when Virginia created its own permanent government. [28] [29]

Members

While the committee's declaration of May 10, 1776 is presumed lost, at least one memorial (petition) from the committee survives with its signatories intact. This memorial, dated November 9, 1776, and which relates to religion and taxation, is signed by the following:

Contemporary references

Several contemporary references to the Augusta Declaration exist outside of the journal of the Fifth Virginia Convention. Among them:

Legacy

"It [the Augusta Declaration] is the first deliberate expression of the policy of establishing an independent state government and a permanent confederation of the States which our parliamentary journals contain; for, although several counties had expressed a resolution to sustain the Conventions in all measures which should be deemed necessary for the public weal, and had shown a spirit equal to every emergency, none had made so direct and so explicit a representation of the mode of redress which the crisis required . . . "

This memorial was presented five days before the grand committee. . . made that report recommending a declaration of independence and a formation of a state government wholly independent of the British Crown. This memorial from Augusta . . .deserves to be stereotyped as the Magna Charta of the West." [33]

- Hugh Blair Grigsby

Historian Pauline Maier identifies more than ninety 'declarations of independence' that were issued throughout the Thirteen Colonies from April to July 1776. [34] Among these were the Halifax Resolves, which on April 12 authorized the North Carolina delegates to the Continental Congress to vote in favor of independence should such a vote reach the floor; [35] and the Rhode Island Act of Renunciation, which on May 4 officially renounced that colony's allegiance to George III. [36] In Virginia, several counties adopted resolutions in favor of independence by the end of April: Cumberland County On April 22; [37] Charlotte County on April 23; [38] James City on April 24. [39]

A confederation of the colonies had also been proposed by this time. Benjamin Franklin had introduced a plan for confederation of the thirteen colonies during the July, 1775 session of the Continental Congress. This plan, which was not adopted, left open the possibility for reconciliation with Britain (aspects of his plan would be revived for the Articles of Confederation). [40] In Virginia, Patrick Henry had been a supporter of confederation. A resolution he authored for the Fifth Virginia Convention and debated May 15 called for the independence of all thirteen colonies, which he intended to be a step toward confederation. [41] Letters he would write to both John Adams and Richard Henry Lee on May 20 suggested the importance he placed on the issue. [42]

Hugh Blair Grigsby, Virginia historical scholar, states that while several bodies had declared or cleared the way for a vote for independence, and while Congress had, also on May 10, instructed the colonies to form temporary governments to address the domestic needs of their people, no one in the colonies had yet laid out, as did the Committee of Safety from Augusta County, Virginia, a proposal for the creation of a permanent and independent union of states and national government for the Colonies. [43] [44] Grigsby states that this declaration is analogous to England's Magna Carta, which concerned the medieval relationship between English monarch and barons, but has come to be seen as an iconic statement of the rights of ordinary people. [45]

A writer for an 1887 issue of The Nation states: "The distinction [to which Grigsby refers] is too technical to be of great value; at best, Augusta County was a year behind Mecklenburg, and far less outspoken than Buckingham, whose delegates to the Virginia Convention were bluntly instructed "to cause a total and final separation from Great Britain to take place as soon as possible."" [46] Grigsby indeed notes that the Buckingham County statement, published June 14, 1776, but probably written May 13, [47] is "the only paper which can stand near [the Augusta Declaration]." [48] Others have noted that the Mecklenburg Resolves, while radical, left open the possibility of reconciliation with Great Britain and were not a declaration that the people of Mecklenburg County were free and independent of The Crown. [49]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Peyton Randolph</span> American Founding Father (1721–1775)

Peyton Randolph was an American politician and planter who was a Founding Father of the United States. Born into Virginia's wealthiest and most powerful family, Randolph served as speaker of Virginia's House of Burgesses, president of the first two Virginia Conventions, and president of the First Continental Congress. He also served briefly as president of the Second Continental Congress.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">United States Declaration of Independence</span> 1776 American national founding document

The Declaration of Independence, headed The unanimous Declaration of the thirteen united States of America, is the founding document of the United States. It was adopted on July 4, 1776 by the Second Continental Congress meeting at the Pennsylvania State House, later renamed Independence Hall, in Philadelphia. The declaration explains to the world why the Thirteen Colonies regarded themselves as independent sovereign states no longer subject to British colonial rule.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Continental Congress</span> Convention of delegates that became the governing body of the United States (1774–1789)

The Continental Congress was a series of legislative bodies, with some executive function, for the thirteen colonies of Great Britain in North America, and the newly declared United States before, during, and after the American Revolutionary War. The Continental Congress refers to both the First and Second Congresses of 1774–1781 which, at the time, also described the Congress of the Confederation of 1781–1789, which operated as the first common government until being replaced following ratification of the U.S. Constitution. The Continental Congress represented the 13 colonies and then the new United States from 1774 until 1789. The Congress met predominantly at Independence Hall in Philadelphia, though it was relocated temporarily on several occasions during the Revolutionary War and the fall of Philadelphia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Benjamin Harrison V</span> American Founding Father, planter, and merchant (1726-1791)

Benjamin Harrison V was an American planter, merchant, and politician who served as a legislator in colonial Virginia, following his namesakes' tradition of public service. He was a signer of the Continental Association, as well as the United States Declaration of Independence, and was one of the nation's Founding Fathers. He served as Virginia's governor from 1781 to 1784.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">George Mason</span> American Founding Father, Bill of Rights advocate

George Mason was an American planter, politician, Founding Father, and delegate to the U.S. Constitutional Convention of 1787, one of three delegates present who refused to sign the Constitution. His writings, including substantial portions of the Fairfax Resolves of 1774, the Virginia Declaration of Rights of 1776, and his Objections to this Constitution of Government (1787) opposing ratification, have exercised a significant influence on American political thought and events. The Virginia Declaration of Rights, which Mason principally authored, served as a basis for the United States Bill of Rights, of which he has been deemed a father.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">House of Burgesses</span> Representative assembly in colonial Virginia

The House of Burgesses was the elected representative element of the Virginia General Assembly, the legislative body of the Colony of Virginia. With the creation of the House of Burgesses in 1642, the General Assembly, which had been established in 1619, became a bicameral institution.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Thomas Nelson Jr.</span> American Founding Father and politician

Thomas Nelson Jr. was a Founding Father of the United States, general in the Revolutionary War, member of the Continental Congress, and a Virginia planter. In addition to serving many terms in the Virginia General Assembly, he twice represented Virginia in the Congress, where he signed the Declaration of Independence in 1776. Fellow Virginia legislators elected him to serve as the commonwealth's governor in 1781, the same year he fought as a brigadier general in the siege of Yorktown, the final battle of the war.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Halifax Resolves</span> 1776 resolution adopted by North Carolina

The Halifax Resolves was a name later given to the resolution adopted by the North Carolina Provincial Congress on April 12, 1776. The adoption of the resolution was the first official action in the American Colonies calling for independence from Great Britain during the American Revolution. The Halifax Resolves helped pave the way for the presentation to Congress of the United States Declaration of Independence less than three months later.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Second Continental Congress</span> 1775–1781 convention of the Thirteen Colonies

The Second Continental Congress was the late-18th-century meeting of delegates from the Thirteen Colonies that united in support of the American Revolution and its associated Revolutionary War that established American independence from the British Empire. The Congress created a new country that it first named the United Colonies, and in 1776, renamed the United States of America. The Congress began convening in Philadelphia, on May 10, 1775, with representatives from 12 of the 13 colonies, after the Battles of Lexington and Concord.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Committees of correspondence</span> 18th-century American political organizations

The committees of correspondence were, prior to the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War, a collection of American political organizations that sought to coordinate opposition to British Parliament and, later, support for American independence. The brainchild of Samuel Adams, a Patriot from Boston, the committees sought to establish, through the writing of letters, an underground network of communication among Patriot leaders in the Thirteen Colonies. The committees were instrumental in setting up the First Continental Congress, which met in Philadelphia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lee Resolution</span> 1776 formal assertion of American independence from Britain

The Lee Resolution, also known as "The Resolution for Independence", was the formal assertion passed by the Second Continental Congress on July 2, 1776, which resolved that the Thirteen Colonies, then referred to as the United Colonies, were "free and independent States" and separate from the British Empire, which created what became the United States of America. News of this act was published that evening in The Pennsylvania Evening Post and the next day in The Pennsylvania Gazette. The Declaration of Independence officially announced and explained the case for independence and was approved two days later, on July 4, 1776.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Virginia Conventions</span> Assemblies to establish constitutional law for Virginia

The Virginia Conventions have been the assemblies of delegates elected for the purpose of establishing constitutions of fundamental law for the Commonwealth of Virginia superior to General Assembly legislation. Their constitutions and subsequent amendments span four centuries across the territory of modern-day Virginia, West Virginia and Kentucky.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fifth Virginia Convention</span>

The Fifth Virginia Convention was a meeting of the Patriot legislature of Virginia held in Williamsburg from May 6 to July 5, 1776. This Convention declared Virginia an independent state and produced its first constitution and the Virginia Declaration of Rights.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pennsylvania in the American Revolution</span>

Pennsylvania was the site of many key events associated with the American Revolution and American Revolutionary War. The city of Philadelphia, then capital of the Thirteen Colonies and the largest city in the colonies, was a gathering place for the Founding Fathers who discussed, debated, developed, and ultimately implemented many of the acts, including signing the Declaration of Independence, that inspired and launched the revolution and the quest for independence from the British Empire.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">United Colonies</span> Name used for the Thirteen Colonies

The United Colonies was the name used by the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia to describe the emerging nation comprising the Thirteen Colonies in 1775 and 1776, before and as independence was declared. Continental currency banknotes displayed the name 'The United Colonies' from May 1775 until February 1777, and the name was being used as a colloquial phrase to refer to the colonies as a whole before the Second Congress met, although the precise place or date of its origin is unknown.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Committee of Five</span> Second Continental Congress delegates who drafted the U.S. Declaration of Independence

The Committee of Five of the Second Continental Congress was a group of five members who drafted and presented to the full Congress in Pennsylvania State House what would become the United States Declaration of Independence of July 4, 1776. This Declaration committee operated from June 11, 1776, until July 5, 1776, the day on which the Declaration was published.

The New York Provincial Congress (1775–1777) was a revolutionary provisional government formed by colonists in 1775, during the American Revolution, as a pro-American alternative to the more conservative New York General Assembly, and as a replacement for the Committee of One Hundred. The Fourth Provincial Congress, resolving itself as the Convention of Representatives of the State of New York, adopted the first Constitution of the State of New York on April 20, 1777.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sampson Mathews</span> American politician

Sampson Mathews was an American merchant, soldier, and legislator in the colony of Virginia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1776 Virginia gubernatorial election</span>

The Virginia gubernatorial election of 1776 was the first gubernatorial election of the newly independent Commonwealth of Virginia. It was held on June 29, 1776, forty-five days after the adoption of the Lee Resolution by the Fifth Virginia Convention asserting the independence of the United Colonies from Great Britain. The election was conducted under the provisions of the Constitution of Virginia, which had been adopted by the convention the same day and went into effect immediately. Patrick Henry, a leading advocate for independence who had served as a delegate to the First Continental Congress, was elected governor by a majority vote, defeating Thomas Nelson Jr. and John Page.

The Augusta County Committee of Safety was the shadow government of patriots from Augusta County, Virginia prior to and throughout the American Revolution. One of many such revolutionary committees of safety, the Augusta County committee is notable for writing the first known policy proposal to create a permanent independent state government and federal union of American colonies. The paper was presented by Thomas Lewis at the Fifth Virginia Convention on May 10, 1776, preceding the United States Declaration of Independence by more than 50 days.

References

  1. ↑ Grigsby 1890(2), p. 66
  2. ↑ Grigsby 1855, p. 110
  3. ↑ Grigsby 1890(2), p. 66
  4. ↑ Grigsby 1855, p. 110
  5. ↑ Clarke, Robert (1899). Proceedings of the Scotch Irish Congress, Volume 2. Cincinnati, Ohio: Scotch-Irish Society of America. p. 233.
  6. ↑ Grigsby 1855, p. 62
  7. ↑ Grigsby 1855, p.62
  8. ↑ Grigsby 1855, p. 62, 110, 148
  9. ↑ Van Schreeven et al., p. 433-434
  10. ↑ Van Schreeven et al., p. 447-448
  11. ↑ Van Schreeven et al., p. 458
  12. ↑ Dunaway, Jr., W.F. (1904). "The Virginia Conventions of the Revolution". Virginia Law Register. 10 (7): 581. doi:10.2307/1100650. JSTOR   1100650.
  13. ↑ Van Schreeven et al., p. 124, n. 3
  14. ↑ Van Schreeven et al., p. 90, n. 8
  15. ↑ White, Henry A. (1911). Southern Presbyterian leaders. New York, New York: Neale publishing Company. p.  123. OCLC   1085173085.
  16. ↑ Van Schreeven et al., p. 124, n. 3
  17. ↑ Colonial Williamsburg Research Dept. (January 22, 1976). "Va. Resolution for Independence" (PDF). Sixteenth Commemorative Session of the Virginia General Assembly. Williamsburg, Virginia.
  18. ↑ Van Schreeven et al., p. 90, n. 8
  19. ↑ Henry, William Wirt (1891). Patrick Henry; Life, Correspondence and Speeches. New York, New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. p. 401. OCLC   727087.
  20. ↑ "The Model Treaty, 1776". United States Office of the Historian. United States Dept. of State.
  21. ↑ Glanville, p. 71-72
  22. ↑ Glanville, p. 80
  23. ↑ Van Schreeven, William; Scribner, Robert; Tarter, Brent (1973). Revolutionary Virginia, the road to independence, vol. 5. Independence and the Fifth convention. Charlottesville, Virginia: University Press of Virginia. OCLC   802770.
  24. ↑ Bowman, p. 325
  25. ↑ Bowman, p. 336
  26. ↑ Waddell, Joseph Addison (May 5, 1886). Annals of Augusta County, Virginia: With Reminiscences Illustrative of the Vicissitudes of Its Pioneer Settlers ; Biographical Sketches of Citizens Locally Prominent, and of Those who Have Founded Families in the Southern and Western States ; a Diary of the War, 1861–'5, and a Chapter on Reconstruction. Wm. Ellis Jones. p.  148 – via Internet Archive.
  27. ↑ Glanville, p. 78
  28. ↑ Virginia Historical Society (1887). Proceedings of the Virginia Historical Society at the Annual Meeting Held December 21-22, 1891: With Historical Papers Read on the Occasion, and Others, Volume 6. Richmond, Virginia: Virginia Historical Society. p. 110.
  29. ↑ Force, Peter (1840). American archives: consisting of a collection of authentick records, state papers, debates, and letters and other notices of publick affairs, the whole forming a documentary history of the origin and progress of the North American colonies; of the causes and accomplishment of the American revolution; and of the Constitution of government for the United States, to the final ratification thereof. In six series ... Washington, DC: Virginia Historical Society. p.  939. OCLC   1039501099.
  30. ↑ Bruce, Philip Alexander (1910). The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, Volume 18. Richmond, Virginia: Virginia Historical Society. p.  148–150.
  31. ↑ Jones, Gabriel (June 6, 1777). "To George Washington from Gabriel Jones, 6 June 1777". The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration.
  32. ↑ Madison, James (1827). "Independence and Constitution of Virginia, [1827?]". The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration.
  33. ↑ Grigsby 1890(2), p. 66
  34. ↑ Maier, Pauline. American Scripture: Making the Declaration of Independence. New York: Knopf, 1997. Page 48, and Appendix A, which lists the state and local declarations. ISBN   0-679-45492-6
  35. ↑ Jensen, p., 678–79.
  36. ↑ "Treasures from the Archives: The Act of Renunciation". Rhode Island Department of State. Retrieved July 29, 2019. Rhode Island was the first colony to renounce allegiance to Great Britain's King George III by an official legislative act.
  37. ↑ Van Schreeven et al., p. 433-434
  38. ↑ Van Schreeven et al., p. 447-448
  39. ↑ Van Schreeven et al., p. 458
  40. ↑ Sparks, Jared (1856). The Life of Benjamin Franklin: Containing the Autobiography, with Notes and a Continuation. Boston: Whittemore, Niles and Hall. pp. 397–398.
  41. ↑ Henry, William Wirt (1891). Patrick Henry; Life, Correspondence and Speeches. New York, New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. p. 397. OCLC   727087.
  42. ↑ Henry, p. 397
  43. ↑ Grigsby 1855, p. 110
  44. ↑ Grigsby 1890(2), p. 66
  45. ↑ Grigsby 1890(2), p. 66
  46. ↑ "New York, Thursday, August 11, 1887: The Week". The Nation: A Weekly Journal Devoted to Politics, Literature, Science, and Art. 45: 121. July 1, 1887. Retrieved July 25, 2019.
  47. ↑ Maier, American Scripture, Appendix A.
  48. ↑ Grigsby 1890(1), p. 338
  49. ↑ "Mecklenburg Resolutions Reject the Power of the British in North Carolina". History Channel: This Day in History. A&E Television Networks, LLC. Retrieved January 27, 2013.

Bibliography

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.