Big-belly seahorse

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Big-belly seahorse
Sketchbook of fishes - 18. (Pot bellied) Sea horse - William Buelow Gould, c1832.jpg
Hippocampus abdominalis, from the Sketchbook of fishes by William Buelow Gould, 1832
CITES Appendix II (CITES) [2]
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Actinopterygii
Order: Syngnathiformes
Family: Syngnathidae
Genus: Hippocampus
Species:
H. abdominalis
Binomial name
Hippocampus abdominalis
Lesson, 1827
Synonyms
  • Hippocampus bleekeri Fowler, 1907
  • Hippocampus agnesaeFowler, 1907


The big-belly seahorse (Hippocampus abdominalis) or pot-bellied seahorse [3] is one of the largest seahorse species in the world, with a length of up to 35 cm (14 in), and is the largest in Australia. [4] Seahorses are members of the family Syngnathidae, and are teleost fishes. They are found in southeast Australia and New Zealand, and are listed on Appendix II of CITES. [5] They are the only species of seahorse found in New Zealand, with a habitat range spanning from the Three Kings Island in the north all the way to the Snares Island in the south. [6]

Contents

Description

Male (left) and female Hippocampus abdominalis 1921 Waite Fishes S Austr FMIB 45602.png
Male (left) and female
Pot-bellied seahorses, Shedd Aquarium

The big-belly seahorse has a forward-tilted, a long-snouted head, a distended but narrow pot belly, and a long, coiled tail. They can be yellow, brown or sometimes white in colouration. [7] It swims using its dorsal fin with a vertical stance; when not swimming, it coils its prehensile tail around any suitable growth, such as seaweed, waiting for planktonic animals to drift by, when they are sucked up by the small mouth set at the tip of the snout much like a vacuum cleaner. Seahorses are voracious feeders, eating mainly crustaceans, such as shrimp, and other small animals living among the seaweed, such as copepods and amphipods. They do not chew, so they can eat to excess because of their small gut tract. Each eye moves separately, making it easier for them to see food and predators.

Distinguishing males from females is easy: The male has a smooth, soft, pouch-like area at the base of its abdomen where the stomach meets the tail on the front side. Males also have a fin there, but it is less obvious. The female has more of a pointed stomach with a very obvious fin at the base of it.

Habitat

Big-belly Seahorses (Hippocampus abdominalis) are found in both South-East Australian and New Zealand waters, typically inhabiting shallow environments such as large rock pools at low tide. They are able to remain motionless amidst seaweed which can be useful to avoid predation. These types of habitats are preferred as they are the most productive for the seahorse’s ambush predation strategy [8] Juveniles are pelagic or attached to drifting seaweed, and adults feed on minute crustaceans like copepods and amphipods. [9]

They are nocturnal and ovoviviparous, with the male carrying eggs in a brood pouch located under the tail. These seahorses are often observed in groups at night and can attach to sponges, colonial hydroids, or man-made structures such as jetty piles in deeper water. Typically found in waters less than 50 m (160 ft) deep, they have been observed at depths as great as 104 m (340 ft) [8] Notably, this is the largest seahorse species in southeastern Australia, with more dorsal fin rays and tail rings than any other seahorses [10]

Habitat and Behavioural Ecology

Habitat Selection

Juvenile and adult big-belly seahorses, when given a choice, prefer vegetated areas (even with artificial seagrass) over open water. They consistently choose vegetated areas, even when mysid prey is present in adjacent clear water. This preference is linked to their predatory behaviour as they rely on ambush predation. [11]

The density of vegetation also plays a role in the seahorses' foraging success. Increasing vegetation density from low to medium habitat complexity positively impacts the capture success of both juvenile and adult big-belly seahorses who are feeding on mysid swarms. But, juvenile seahorses exhibit a decrease in the number of prey attacks in higher-density vegetation, while adult seahorses show no difference. [9] The number of unsuccessful attacks for juveniles, is possibly due to high vegetation density disrupting prey swarm structures, which can form defensive formations. Large, cohesive prey swarms are more effective against lunging predators, but dense vegetation disrupts their structure, making them more vulnerable to ambush predators like seahorses. [12]

Hippocampus abdominalis, Port Phillip. Photo by Mark Norman / Museum Victoria, CC BY 3.0 Hippocampus abdominalis, Port Phillip.jpg
Hippocampus abdominalis, Port Phillip. Photo by Mark Norman / Museum Victoria, CC BY 3.0

Similarly, substrate preference studies revealed a strong preference for substrates with the largest diameter (0.9 mm) and the lowest density (24 mm bar length). Seahorses, known for their prehensile tails, often attach to natural and artificial substrates such as coral and aquaculture nets. [13]

While early juveniles are pelagic in their first month of life, they display attachment to substrates, suggesting a potential preference for specific characteristics. This aligns with earlier findings that emphasize the need for appropriately sized substrates in seahorse rearing to promote optimal distribution and minimise stress. [13]

The use of space in such a complex way also relates to mating systems, suggesting that genetic monogamy in this species arises from factors beyond just the availability of mates, involving intricate ecological and behavioural considerations too. [14]

Home Ranges

A home range refers to the area over which an animal travels, often in search of food or mates. [15] Big-belly seahorse females exhibit larger home ranges and move greater distances than males. Within the species unpaired individuals do not show increased movement compared to those who are paired. The home ranges of pair-bonded individuals tend to overlap significantly more than those of randomly chosen individuals. Both sexes tend to have home ranges that overlap with 6–10 members of the opposite sex; this suggests that mate availability is not a limiting factor for monogamy [9] Body size does not significantly affect home range size or movement patterns of the Big-Belly Seahorse, this challenges the idea that larger individuals would have larger space requirements due to foraging needs or mate searching. Therefore low mate availability does not necessarily drive monogamous behaviour. Ecological factors and the dynamics of pair bonding may influence spatial use and movement patterns among the species. [16]

Habitat Density Effects

Juvenile big-belly seahorses have optimised growth at lower densities. Physical interference, such as tail-grasping during feeding, hinders growth and survival at higher densities, with crowding negatively affecting juvenile development. Gender segregation does not significantly impact the growth of sexually mature seahorses, although same-sex courtship behaviours are observed, suggesting that social dynamics among juveniles are more influenced by density than gender. This highlights the importance of managing stocking densities in aquaculture to promote healthy growth and reduce competition during feeding [17] [8]

Acclimation and Stress within Environment

Hippocampus abdominalis in an aquarium. Photo by opencage, CC BY-SA 2.5 Hippocampus abdominalis en acuario.jpg
Hippocampus abdominalis in an aquarium. Photo by opencage, CC BY-SA 2.5

Big Belly Seahorses show no typical stress responses (e.g., plasma cortisol, glucose, or lactate) after brief acute stress (60 seconds of air exposure), indicating a lack of adrenergic activation. Chronic stress (e.g., confinement or transportation) significantly raises stress markers but levels return to normal within six hours, showing their capacity for recovery. This rapid recovery suggests tolerance for handling and extended confinement (up to 35 hours) with minimal adverse effects, as indicated by a low mortality rate (1%) during recovery. [18]

By analysing the breathing patterns of seahorses, research has found that seahorses in both wild and captive environments showed an increase in opercular beat rate (gill movements) after being handled. While wild seahorses opercular beats are lower at rest compared to those in captivity, both show a significant increase after manipulation. Suggesting that current captivity protocols should allow for more than 24 hours of acclimation to ensure better recovery. [19]

Feeding Behaviour

Hippocampus abdominalis pair. Photo by opencage, CC BY-SA 2.5 Hippocampus abdominalis, pareja.jpg
Hippocampus abdominalis pair. Photo by opencage, CC BY-SA 2.5

Adult seahorses eat 30 to 50 times a day if food is available, due to their slow consumption they must feed constantly to survive. [20] Big-belly seahorses do not have a stomach or teeth, so they feed by sucking small invertebrates in through their bony tubular snouts with a flick of their head. Their snouts can expand if the prey is larger than their snout, allowing them to consume a variety of organisms [21]

They are not able to chew so eat prey whole and then disintegrate their food to eat it. [22] Adult big-belly seahorses have fully developed bony plates, which makes it difficult for many marine predators to ingest them. Big-bellied seahorses also have cryptic colouration and can alter their colour to better camouflage with their surroundings which is beneficial when sneaking up on prey. [23] Their head morphology provides a hydrodynamic advantage, which enables them to approach closely to hydrodynamically sensitive prey, without startling them. They use a pivot-feeding mechanism which is composed of two processes. First, the preparatory phase, where the seahorse slowly approaches prey and flexes its head, this is followed by the expansive phase, during which the seahorse now elevates its head and uses suction to capture the prey. Finally, during the recovery phase, their head and jaws return to their original position. [24]

Visual Feeding Behaviour

Hippocampus abdominalis head. Photo by Brian Gratwicke, CC BY 2.0 Hippocampus abdominalis, cabeza.jpg
Hippocampus abdominalis head. Photo by Brian Gratwicke, CC BY 2.0

Big-Belly Seahorses are visually guided feeders whose eyes can move independently. They Possess a rod-free convexiclivate fovea, characterized by a calculated visual resolution limit of 5.25 min of arc. Seahorses have adapted their visual systems for efficient prey capturing in varied ecological settings. [25]

Acoustic Feeding Behaviour

Female, male and juvenile Big-bellied seahorses make "click" sounds while feeding, often paired with a head movement called a "snick”. Females click more frequently than males, suggesting a possible link to sexual selection. Click frequency is correlated with body condition, indicating that these sounds may provide clues about the seahorse’s size and overall health, helping to signal to potential mates their size, fitness and quality. [26]

Diet

Studies showed that the diet of adult wild Big-Belly Seahorses when living in shallow subtidal macroalgal primarily consists of crustaceans. [9] Key components of the diet of Big-Belly Seahorse includes amphipods (such as caprellid and ischyrocerid amphipods), caridean shrimp (Hippolyte bifidirostris), and peracarids like the mysid (Tenagomysis similis). There are no significant differences between the diets of male and female big-belly seahorses. However, smaller seahorses were found to consume more crustaceans than larger ones, due primarily to the higher proportion of amphipods in their gut contents. Seasonal variations are also apparent, with amphipod consumption being the highest during spring and summer, while decapod consumption is at its lowest in autumn. [27]

Further research into the impact of varying feed ratios of frozen mysids (Amblyops kempii) on their growth and survival revealed no significant differences in standard length after three months. However, big-belly seahorses fed higher rations (10-20% of wet body weight) had greater body weights and higher condition factors. The most cost-effective feeding strategy, based on the total mysids offered, was the 5% ration, with survival rates remaining at 100% across all treatments. Therefore, it is recommended to maintain a daily feed ratio of 5-10% wet body weight of frozen mysids for optimal growth in Big-belly seahorse aquaculture. [28]

Similarly, when fed diets consisting of live enriched Artemia (brine shrimp), frozen mysids (Amblyops kempi), or a combination of both there were no observed differences in seahorse length, wet weight, condition factor, or food conversion ratios among the treatments. But, the specific growth rate was higher for the Artemia-only group. Despite frozen mysids having higher levels of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), this did not result in improved growth. So, frozen mysids are still considered a viable alternative to live Artemia in seahorse diet in aquaculture, potentially reducing costs and improving survival rates in the aquarium trade. [29]



Reproduction

Hippocampus abdominalis mating (cropped retouched). Photo by Elizabeth Haslam, CC BY 3.0 Hippocampus abdominalis, apareamiento (cropped retouched).jpg
Hippocampus abdominalis mating (cropped retouched). Photo by Elizabeth Haslam, CC BY 3.0

In the wild, breeding can commence when the seahorses are about one year old, and this can be reduced to about eight months when in captivity. Breeding in big-belly seahorses occurs year-round, with peaks in the warmer months. [4]

Courtship initiation involves a series of colour changes and postural displays. Dilating the opening of the brood pouch slightly, the male inflates the pouch to balloon-like proportions with water by swimming forwards, or by pushing his body forwards in a pumping action, then closing the pouch opening. At the same time, he lightens his pouch in colour to white or light yellow. The male also brightens his overall body colouration, typically intensifying the yellow. A male repeatedly approaches his selected female with his head tucked down, and dorsal and pectoral fins rapidly fluttering.

A dried big-belly seahorse specimen Hippocampus abdominalis by Zureks.jpg
A dried big-belly seahorse specimen

If the female is not receptive, she ignores the male, which then looks for another potential mate. If no females are receptive, the male stops displaying and deflates the pouch by dilating the pouch opening and bending forwards, expelling the water inside. If a female is receptive to a courting male, she reciprocates with her own color changes and head tucking, typically intensifying the lighter colours such as yellow and white, highlighting the contrast between these colours and her overall darker blotching and banding patterning. A series of short bursts of swimming together in tandem then ensues, sometimes with tails entwined, or with the female tightly rolling her tail up. This has often been described as 'dancing'. After coming to rest, the male attempts to get the female to swim towards the water surface with him by repeatedly pointing his snout upwards.

If the female responds by also pointing her snout upwards, then the final stage of courtship follows. This involves both the male and female swimming directly upwards towards the water surface with both their heads pointing upwards and tails pointing straight down. If they reach the water surface, one or both seahorses can often be seen and heard to snap their heads. To transfer her eggs to the male, the female faces the male, slightly above him. Pressing the base of her abdomen against the male's pouch, she then squirts her eggs through the opening in the front of his dilated pouch.

The male seahorse brood 300–700 young at a time, and can have up to four broods in summer. [4] Their colouring is a variable shade of brown, mottled with yellow-brown and with darker splotches. The tail is often circled with yellow bands. In deeper water where the tail is anchored to other colourful forms of life, such as sponges and hydroids, they often take on these colours.

Aquaculture

The big-belly seahorse is a popular aquarium species and dried specimens are sold as traditional medicine in Asia. [4] Stocks come from the wild or are aquarium-reared. They are easy to keep in aquariums and feed on small shrimp and crustaceans.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Seahorse</span> Genus of bony fishes

A seahorse is any of 46 species of small marine bony fish in the genus Hippocampus. "Hippocampus" comes from the Ancient Greek hippókampos (ἱππόκαμπος), itself from híppos (ἵππος) meaning "horse" and kámpos (κάμπος) meaning "sea monster" or "sea animal". Having a head and neck suggestive of a horse, seahorses also feature segmented bony armour, an upright posture and a curled prehensile tail. Along with the pipefishes and seadragons they form the family Syngnathidae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mysida</span> Small, shrimp-like crustacean

Mysida is an order of small, shrimp-like crustaceans in the malacostracan superorder Peracarida. Their common name opossum shrimps stems from the presence of a brood pouch or "marsupium" in females. The fact that the larvae are reared in this pouch and are not free-swimming characterises the order. The mysid's head bears a pair of stalked eyes and two pairs of antennae. The thorax consists of eight segments each bearing branching limbs, the whole concealed beneath a protective carapace and the abdomen has six segments and usually further small limbs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Syngnathidae</span> Family of fishes

The Syngnathidae is a family of fish which includes seahorses, pipefishes, and seadragons. The name is derived from Ancient Greek: σύν, meaning "together", and γνάθος, meaning "jaw". The fused jaw is one of the traits that the entire family have in common.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Narrow-bellied seahorse</span> Species of fish

Hippocampus angustus, commonly known as the narrow-bellied seahorse, western Australian seahorse, or western spiny seahorse, is a species of marine fish of the family Syngnathidae. It is found in waters off of Australia, from Perth to Hervey Bay, and the southern portion of Papua New Guinea in the Torres Strait. It lives over soft-bottom substrates, adjacent to coral reefs, and on soft corals at depths of 3–63 metres (9.8–206.7 ft). It is expected to feed on small crustaceans, similar to other seahorses. This species is ovoviviparous, with males carrying eggs in a brood pouch before giving birth to live young. This type of seahorse is monogamous in its mating patterns. The males only fertilize one female's eggs for the mating season because of the population distribution. While some seahorses can be polygamous because they are denser in population, this type of seahorse is more sparsely distributed and the cost of reproduction is high. Therefore, the risk to reproduce due to predatory and distributary factors limits this breed to one mate, often finding the same mate season after season.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Barbour's seahorse</span> Species of fish

Barbour's seahorse is a species of fish of the family Syngnathidae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Knobby seahorse</span> Species of fish

The knobby seahorse, also known as the short-headed seahorse or short-snouted seahorse, is a species of marine fish of the family Syngnathidae. It inhabits coastal waters in southwestern and southeastern Australia, from Gregory to Bremer Bay, and from Denial Bay to Newcastle.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Crowned seahorse</span> Species of fish

Hippocampus coronatus, commonly known as the high-crowned seahorse or crowned seahorse, is a species of fish of the family Syngnathidae. It is endemic to the Pacific coastal waters of Japan, where it lives among Zostera seagrasses. It can grow to lengths of 10.8 centimetres (4.3 in), but is more commonly 6 centimetres (2.4 in). Individuals feed mainly on small crustaceans such as gammarid amphipods and copepods, although this can vary by size, with smaller individuals consuming copepods while larger individuals feed on amphipods and mysids. This species is ovoviviparous, with males brooding eggs in a brood pouch before giving birth to live young. Breeding season occurs from June to November, with females and males reaching sexual maturity at 6.9 centimetres (2.7 in) and 7.3 centimetres (2.9 in) respectively. Male brood size ranges from 12–46. The International trade in this species has been monitored through Appendix II of the CITES licensing system since 2004 and a minimum size of 10 centimetres (3.9 in) applies to traded specimens.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pacific seahorse</span> Species of fish

The Pacific seahorse, also known as the giant seahorse, is a species of fish in the family Syngnathidae. Their genus name (Hippocampus) is derived from the Greek word hippos, which means "horse" and campus, which means "sea monster." This species is the only seahorse species found in the eastern Pacific Ocean.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Great seahorse</span> Species of fish

The great seahorse, also known as Kellogg's seahorse is a species of fish in the family Syngnathidae. It is one of the largest of the 54 species of seahorse.

<i>Hippocampus kuda</i> Species of seahorse

Hippocampus kuda is a species of seahorse, also known as the common seahorse, estuary seahorse, yellow seahorse or spotted seahorse. The common name sea pony has been used for populations formerly treated as the separate species Hippocampus fuscus, now a synonym of H. kuda.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Slender seahorse</span> Species of fish

The slender seahorse or longsnout seahorse is a species of fish in the family Syngnathidae that usually inhabits subtropical regions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hedgehog seahorse</span> Species of fish

The hedgehog seahorse is a species of fish of the family Syngnathidae. It inhabits coastal waters from India and Sri Lanka to Taiwan and northern Australia. It is threatened by overfishing, as both targeted catch and bycatch. This species is ovoviviparous, with males carrying eggs in a brood pouch before giving birth to live young.

The false-eye seahorse, or flatface seahorse is a species of marine fish of the family Syngnathidae. It is endemic to Australia, from Shark Bay to Broome, where it is found in intertidal rockpools, shallow algae and weedy or rubble reef habitats. It is expected to feed on harpacticoid, calanoid, and cyclopoid copepods, caridean and gammaridean shrimps, and mysids, similar to other seahorses. This species is ovoviviparous, with males brooding eggs in a brood pouch before giving birth to live young.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">New Holland seahorse</span> Species of fish

Hippocampus whitei, commonly known as White's seahorse, New Holland seahorse, or Sydney seahorse, is a species of marine fish of the family Syngnathidae. It is thought to be endemic to the Southwest Pacific, from Sydney, New South Wales and southern Queensland (Australia) to the Solomon Islands. It lives in shallow, inshore habitats, both natural and anthropogenic. This species is ovoviviparous, with males brooding eggs in a brood pouch before giving birth to live young.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dwarf seahorse</span> Species of fish

The dwarf seahorse is a species of seahorse found in the subtidal aquatic beds of the Bahamas and parts of the United States. It is threatened by habitat loss. According to Guinness World Records, it is the slowest-moving fish, with a top speed of about 5 feet (1.5 m) per hour.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lined seahorse</span> Species of fish

The lined seahorse, northern seahorse or spotted seahorse, is a species of fish that belongs to the family Syngnathidae. H. erectus is a diurnal species with an approximate length of 15 cm and lifespan of one to four years. The H. erectus species can be found in myriad colors, from greys and blacks to reds, greens, and oranges. The lined seahorse lives in the western Atlantic Ocean as far north as Canada and as far south as the Caribbean, Mexico, and Venezuela. It swims in an erect position and uses its dorsal and pectoral fins for guidance while swimming.

<i>Caprella mutica</i> Species of skeleton shrimp

Caprella mutica, commonly known as the Japanese skeleton shrimp, is a species of skeleton shrimp. They are relatively large caprellids, reaching a maximum length of 50 mm (2.0 in). They are sexually dimorphic, with the males usually being much larger than the females. They are characterized by their "hairy" first and second thoracic segments and the rows of spines on their bodies. Body color ranges from green to red to blue, depending on the environment. They are omnivorous highly adaptable opportunistic feeders. In turn, they provide a valuable food source for fish, crabs, and other larger predators. They are usually found in dense colonies attached to submerged man-made structures, floating seaweed, and other organisms.

<i>Hippocampus patagonicus</i> Species of fish

The Patagonian seahorse is a species of marine fish of the family Syngnathidae. It inhabits coastal waters from northeastern Brazil to Chubut, Argentina. It generally is found at shallow depths attached to natural or artificial substrates. This species is ovoviviparous, with males brooding eggs in a brood pouch before giving birth to live young.

Hippocampus dahli is a fish species of the family Syngnathidae. It is endemic to the Australian northeastern coast, from Darwin to Brisbane, where it inhabits estuarine channels and rubble or soft substrates to depths of 21 metres (69 ft). Little is known of its feeding habits, but it is likely to feed on small crustaceans such as copepods, amphipods, and gammarid, caprellid, and caridean shrimps, similar to other seahorses. This species is ovoviviparous, with males carrying eggs in a brood pouch before giving birth to live young. This species is not listed in FishBase and many authorities treat it as a synonym of Hippocampus trimaculatus.

<i>Urocampus nanus</i> Species of fish

Urocampus nanus, commonly known as the barbed pipefish, is a species of marine fish belonging to the family Syngnathidae. This family consists of 56 different genera and 320 species.

References

  1. ↑ Pollom, R. (2017). "Hippocampus abdominalis". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2017: e.T10057A54903879. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T10057A54903879.en . Retrieved 19 November 2021.
  2. ↑ "Appendices | CITES". cites.org. Retrieved 2022-01-14.
  3. ↑ Scales, Helen (2009). Poseidon's Steed: The Story of Seahorses, From Myth to Reality. Penguin Publishing Group. p. 136. ISBN   978-1-101-13376-7 . Retrieved 9 June 2019.
  4. 1 2 3 4 Bray, Dianne; Thompson, Vanessa. "Bigbelly Seahorse, Hippocampus abdominalis". Fishes of Australia. Archived from the original on 6 October 2014. Retrieved 30 September 2014.
  5. ↑ "Species Hippocampus abdominalis Lesson". FishWisePro. 1827. Retrieved 18 April 2020.
  6. ↑ Nickel, J. E. (2009). "The diversity of Hippocampus abdominalis in New Zealand [Thesis, The University of Waikato]". Archived from the original on 2023-11-30.
  7. ↑ Tony Ayling & Geoffrey Cox, Collins Guide to the Sea Fishes of New Zealand, (William Collins Publishers Ltd, Auckland, New Zealand 1982) ISBN 0-00-216987-8
  8. 1 2 3 Nickel, J., & Cursons, R. (2012). Genetic diversity and population structure of the pot-belly seahorse *Hippocampus abdominalis* in New Zealand. *New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research*, 46(2), 207–218. https://doi.org/10.1080/00288330.2011.632014
  9. 1 2 3 4 Cohen, F. P. A., Valenti, W. C., Planas, M., & Calado, R. (2016). Seahorse aquaculture, biology and conservation: Knowledge gaps and research opportunities. *Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture*, 25(1), 100–111. https://doi.org/10.1080/23308249.2016.1237469
  10. ↑ Cohen, F. P. A., Valenti, W. C., Planas, M., & Calado, R. (2016). Seahorse Aquaculture, Biology and Conservation: Knowledge Gaps and Research Opportunities. Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture, 25(1), 100–111. https://doi.org/10.1080/23308249.2016.1237469.
  11. ↑ name="Flynn1999">Flynn, A. J., & Ritz, D. A. (1999). Effect of habitat complexity and predatory style on the capture success of fish feeding on aggregated prey. *Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom*, 79(3), 487–494. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0025315498000617
  12. ↑ Flynn, A. J., & Ritz, D. A. (1999). Effect of habitat complexity and predatory style on the capture success of fish feeding on aggregated prey. *Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom*, 79(3), 487–494. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0025315498000617
  13. 1 2 Martinez-Cardenas, L., & Purser, J. G. (2012). Substrate-attachment preferences of cultured newborn pot-bellied seahorses, *Hippocampus abdominalis* (Lesson, 1827). *Journal of the World Aquaculture Society*, 43(2), 286–290. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-7345.2012.00552.x
  14. ↑ (Martinez-Cardenas, L., & Purser, J. G. (2012). Substrate-attachment Preferences of Cultured Newborn Pot-bellied Seahorses, Hippocampus abdominalis (Lesson, 1827). Journal of the World Aquaculture Society, 43(2), 286–290. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-7345.2012.00552.x
  15. ↑ Powell, R. A., & Mitchell, M. S. (2012). What is a home range? Journal of Mammalogy, 93(4), 948–958. https://doi.org/10.1644/11-MAMM-S-177.1
  16. ↑ Kvarnemo, C., Andersson, S. E., Elisson, J., Moore, G. I., & Jones, A. G. (2021). Home range use in the West Australian seahorse Hippocampus subelongatus is influenced by sex and partner’s home range but not by body size or paired status. Journal of Ethology, 39(2), 235–248. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10164-021-00698-y
  17. ↑ Woods, C. M. C. (2002). Natural diet of the seahorse Hippocampus abdominalis. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 36(3), 655–660. https://doi.org/10.1080/00288330.2002.9517121
  18. ↑ Wright, K. A., Woods, C. M. C., Gray, B. E., & Lokman, P. M. (2007). Recovery from acute, chronic and transport stress in the pot-bellied seahorse Hippocampus abdominalis. Journal of Fish Biology, 70(5), 1447–1457. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-8649.2007.01422.x
  19. ↑ Freret-Meurer, N. V., Fernández do Carmo, T., & Cabiró, G. (2020). Opercular beat: A non-invasive and rapid method to detect stress in seahorses. Journal of Applied Aquaculture, 33(4), 291–299. https://doi.org/10.1080/10454438.2020.1810841
  20. ↑ Woods, C. M. C. (2002). Natural diet of the seahorse *Hippocampus abdominalis*. *New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research*, 36(3), 655–660. https://doi.org/10.1080/00288330.2002.9517121
  21. ↑ Wardley, T. (2006). "A study on the feeding of the pot-bellied seahorse (Hippocampus abdominalis): reducing the reliance on brine shrimp(Artemia)". Figshare. Retrieved 2024-10-11.
  22. ↑ Kuiter, R. H. (2003). Seahorses, Pipefishes, and Their Relatives.
  23. ↑ Kuiter, R. H. (2003). Seahorses, Pipefishes, and Their Relatives
  24. ↑ Gemmell, B. J.; Sheng, J.; Buskey, E. J. (2013). "Morphology of seahorse head hydrodynamically aids in capture of evasive prey". Nature Communications. 4: 2840. Bibcode:2013NatCo...4.2840G. doi:10.1038/ncomms3840. PMID 24281430.
  25. ↑ LEE, H. R., & BUMSTED O’BRIEN, K. M. (2011). Morphological and behavioral limit of visual resolution in temperate (Hippocampus abdominalis) and tropical (Hippocampus taeniopterus) seahorses. Visual Neuroscience, 28(4), 351–360. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0952523811000149
  26. ↑ Hutton, B. A. (2017). Variation in Sound Production by the Pot-bellied Seahorse, Hippocampus Abdominalis, during Feeding.
  27. ↑ Woods, C. M. C. (2002). The natural diet of the seahorse Hippocampus abdominalis. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 36(3), 655–660. https://doi.org/10.1080/00288330.2002.9517121
  28. ↑ Woods, C. M. C. (2005). Growth of cultured seahorses (Hippocampus abdominalis) in relation to feed ration. Aquaculture International, 13(4), 305–314. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10499-004-3100-7
  29. ↑ Woods, C. M. C. (2005). "Growth of cultured seahorses (Hippocampus abdominalis) in relation to feed ration". Aquaculture International. 13 (4): 305–314. doi:10.1007/s10499-004-3100-7.

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