Biodegradable polymer

Last updated

Biodegradable polymers are a special class of polymer that breaks down after its intended purpose by bacterial decomposition process to result in natural byproducts such as gases (CO2, N2), water, biomass, and inorganic salts. [1] [2] These polymers are found both naturally and synthetically made, and largely consist of ester, amide, and ether functional groups. Their properties and breakdown mechanism are determined by their exact structure. These polymers are often synthesized by condensation reactions, ring opening polymerization, and metal catalysts. There are vast examples and applications of biodegradable polymers.

Contents

Bio-based packaging materials have been introduced as a green alternative in the past decades, among which, edible films have gained more attention due to their environmentally-friendly characteristics, vast variety and availability, non-toxicity, and low cost. [3]

History

Biodegradable polymers have a long history, and since many are natural products, the precise timeline of their discovery and use cannot be accurately traced. One of the first medicinal uses of a biodegradable polymer was the catgut suture, which dates back to at least 100 AD. [4] The first catgut sutures were made from the intestines of sheep, but modern catgut sutures are made from purified collagen extracted from the small intestines of cattle, sheep, or goats. [5]

The concept of synthetic biodegradable plastics and polymers was first introduced in the 1980s. [6] In 1992, an international meeting was called where leaders in biodegradable polymers met to discuss a definition, standard, and testing protocol for biodegradable polymers. [2] Also, oversight organizations such as American Society for Testing of Materials (ASTM) and the International Standards Organization (ISO) were created.[ citation needed ] Large clothing and grocery store chains have pushed to utilize biodegradable bags in the late 2010s. Biodegradable polymers also received notice from various fields in 2012 when Professor Geoffrey Coates of Cornell University received the Presidential Green Chemistry Challenge Award. As of 2013, 5-10% of the plastic market focused on biodegradable polymer derived plastics.[ citation needed ]

Structure and properties

The structure of biodegradable polymers is instrumental in their properties. While there are innumerable biodegradable polymers, both synthetic and natural, there are a few commonalities among them.

Structure

Biodegradable polymers tend to consist of ester, amide, or ether bonds. In general, biodegradable polymers can be grouped into two large groups based on their structure and synthesis. One of these groups is agro-polymers, or those derived from biomass. [1] The other consists of biopolyesters, which are those derived from microorganisms or synthetically made from either naturally or synthetic monomers.

Biodegradable polymers organization based on structure and occurrence Biodegradable Polymers Flow Chart 3.png
Biodegradable polymers organization based on structure and occurrence

Agro-polymers include polysaccharides, like starches found in potatoes or wood, and proteins, such as animal based whey or plant derived gluten. [1] Polysacharides consist of glycosidic bonds, which take a hemiacetal of a saccharide and binds it to an alcohol via loss of water. Proteins are made from amino acids, which contain various functional groups. [7] These amino acids come together again through condensation reactions to form peptide bonds, which consist of amide functional groups. [7] Examples of biopolyesters include polyhydroxybutyrate and polylactic acid. [1]

Properties

Even though biodegradable polymers have numerous applications, there are properties that tend to be common among them. All biodegradable polymers should be stable and durable enough for use in their particular application, but upon disposal they should easily break down.[ citation needed ] Polymers, specifically biodegradable polymers, have extremely strong carbon backbones that are difficult to break, such that degradation often starts from the end-groups. Since the degradation begins at the end, a high surface area is common as it allows easy access for either the chemical, light, or organism. [2] Crystallinity is often low as it also inhibits access to end groups.[ citation needed ] A low degree of polymerization is normally seen, as hinted at above, as doing so allows for more accessible end groups for reaction with the degradation initiator. Another commonality of these polymers is their hydrophillicity. [2] Hydrophobic polymers and end groups will prevent an enzyme from easily interacting if the water-soluble enzyme cannot easily get in contact with the polymer.

Other properties of biodegradable polymers that are common among those used for medicinal usages include being:

A goal is not to elicit the immune response, and the products of degradation also need not to be toxic. These are important as biodegradable polymers are used for drug delivery where it is critical to slowly release the drug into the body over time instead of all at once and that the pill is stable in the bottle until ready to be taken. [8] Factors controlling the rate of degradation include percent crystallinity, molecular weight, and hydrophobicity. The degradation rate depends on the location in the body, which influences the environment surrounding the polymer such as pH, enzymes concentration, and amount of water, among others. These are rapidly decomposed. [8]

Synthesis

One of the most important and most studied groups of biodegradable polymers are polyesters. Polyesters can be synthesized in a number of ways including direct condensation of alcohols and acids, ring opening polymerizations (ROP), and metal-catalyzed polymerization reactions. [9] A great disadvantage of the step-wise polymerization via condensation of an acid and an alcohol is the need to continuously remove water from this system in order to drive the equilibrium of the reaction forward. [10] This can necessitate harsh reaction conditions and long reaction times, resulting in a wide dispersity. A wide variety of starting materials can be used to synthesize polyesters, and each monomer type endows the final polymer chain with different characteristics and properties. The ROP of cyclic dimeric glycolic or lactic acid forms α-hydroxy acids which then polymerize into poly-(α-esters). [10] A variety of organometallic initiators can be used to start the polymerization of polyesters, including tin, zinc, and aluminum complexes. The most common is tin(II)octanoate and has been approved as a food additive by the U.S. FDA, but there are still concerns about using the tin catalysts in the synthesis of biodegradable polymers for biomedical uses. [9] The synthesis of poly(β-esters) and poly(γ-esters) can be carried out by similar ROP or condensation methods as with poly(γ-esters). Development of metal-free process that involve the use of bacterial or enzymatic catalysis in polyester formation is also being explored. [11] [12] These reactions have the benefit of generally being regioselective and stereospecific but suffer from the high cost of bacteria and enzymes, long reaction times, and products of low molecular weight.

Example of routes to polyester formation using lactic acid. a) Condensation of lactic acid into dimeric lactide followed by ring-opening polymerization of to form poly(lactic acid); b) Direct condensation of lactic acid, demonstrating the need to continuously remove water from the system in order to drive the reaction forward. Lactic acid polymerization.png
Example of routes to polyester formation using lactic acid. a) Condensation of lactic acid into dimeric lactide followed by ring-opening polymerization of to form poly(lactic acid); b) Direct condensation of lactic acid, demonstrating the need to continuously remove water from the system in order to drive the reaction forward.

While polyesters dominate both the research and industrial focus on synthetic biodegradable polymers, other classes of polymers are also of interest. Polyanhydrides are an active area of research in drug delivery because they only degrade from the surface and so are able to release the drug they carry at a constant rate. [9] Polyanhydrides can be made via a variety of methods also used in the synthesis of other polymers, including condensation, dehydrochlorination, dehydrative coupling, and ROP. Polyurethanes and poly(ester amide)s are used in biomaterials. [14] Polyurethanes were initially used for their biocompatibility, durability, resilience, but are more recently being investigated for their biodegradability. Polyurethanes are typically synthesized using a diisocyanate, a diol, and a polymer chain extender. [9] The initial reaction is carried out between the diisocyanate and the diol, with the diisocyanate in excess to ensure that the ends of the new polymer chain are isocyanate groups. This polymer can then be reacted with either a diol or a diamine to form urethane or urethane-urea end groups, respectively. The choice of terminal groups affects the properties of the resulting polymer. Additionally, the use of vegetable oil and biomass in the formation of polyurethanes is an active area of research. [15]

Synthesis of polyurethane from a diisocyanate and a diol. To cap this polymer, chain extenders of either diols or diamines can be added in order to tailor the properties. Polyurethane synthesis.tif
Synthesis of polyurethane from a diisocyanate and a diol. To cap this polymer, chain extenders of either diols or diamines can be added in order to tailor the properties.

The mechanical properties of biodegradable polymers can be enhanced with the addition of fillers or other polymers to make a composite, blend, or copolymer. Some fillers are natural fiber reinforcements such as silk nanofibers, bamboo, jute, in addition to nano-clay, and carbon nanotubes as alternatives to name a few. [16] [17] Each of these enhancements have a unique property that not only improve strength, but also processability, through humidity resistance, reduced gas permeability, and have shape memory/recovery. Some examples, such as the polyhydroxyalkanoates/polylactic acid blend, shows an exceptional increase in the toughness without sacrificing optical clarity, and the copolymer poly(L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) has shown shape memory behavior depending on the concentration of poly-ε-caprolactone added. [18] [19]

Mechanism of breakdown

In general, biodegradable polymers break down to form gases, salts, and biomass. [20] Complete biodegradation is said to occur when there are no oligomers or monomers left. [20] The breakdown of these polymers depend on a variety of factors including the polymer and also, the environment the polymer is in. Polymer properties that influence degradation are bond type, solubility, and copolymers among others. [2] The surrounding environment of the polymer is just as important as the polymer structure itself. These factors included items such as the pH, temperature, microorganisms present, and water are just a few examples. [1]

There are two primary mechanisms through which biodegradation can occur. One is through physical decomposition through reactions such as hydrolysis and photodegradation, which can lead to partial or complete degradation.[ citation needed ] The second mechanistic route is through biological processes which can be further broken down into aerobic and anaerobic processes. [2] The first involves aerobic biodegradation, where oxygen is present and important. In this case, the general equation seen below where Cresidue represents smaller fragments of the initial polymer such as oligomers.

General equation for aerobic biodegradition Aerobic biodegradition equation.png
General equation for aerobic biodegradition

The second mechanism of biodegradation is by anaerobic processes, where oxygen is not present.

General equation for anaerobic biodegradition Anaerobic biodegradition equation.png
General equation for anaerobic biodegradition

There are numerous organisms that have the ability to break down natural polymers. [2] There are also synthetic polymers that have only been around for a hundred years with new features that microorganisms do not have the capability to break down. It will take millions of years before organisms can adapt to degrade all of these new synthetic polymers.[ citation needed ] Typically, after physical processes carry out the initial breakdown of the polymer, microorganisms will then take what is left and break down the components into even simpler units. [2] These microorganisms normally take polymer fragments, such as oligomers or monomers, into the cell where enzymes work to make adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and polymer end products carbon dioxide, nitrogen gas, methane, water, minerals, and biomass. [2] These enzymes act in a variety of ways to break down polymers including through oxidation or hydrolysis. Examples of key enzymes include proteases, esterases, glycosidases, and manganese peroxidases.

Applications and uses

Biodegradable polymers are of significant interest to a variety of fields including medicine, [21] agriculture, [22] and packaging. [23] One of the most active areas of research in biodegradable polymer is in controlled drug delivery and release.

Medical

Biodegradable polymers have an innumerable uses in the biomedical field, particularly in the fields of tissue engineering and drug delivery. [9] [24] In order for a biodegradable polymer to be used as a therapeutic, it must meet several criteria: 1) be non-toxic in order to eliminate foreign body response; 2) the time it takes for the polymer to degrade is proportional to the time required for therapy; 3) the products resulting from biodegredation are not cytotoxic and are readily eliminated from the body; 4) the material must be easily processed in order to tailor the mechanical properties for the required task; 5) be easily sterilized; and 6) have acceptable shelf life. [6] [25]

Biodegradable polymers are of great interest in the field of drug delivery and nanomedicine. The great benefit of a biodegradable drug delivery system is the ability of the drug carrier to target the release of its payload to a specific site in the body and then degrade into nontoxic materials that are then eliminated from the body via natural metabolic pathways. [26] The polymer slowly degrades into smaller fragments, releasing a natural product, and there is controlled ability to release a drug. The drug slowly releases as polymer degrades. For example, polylactic acid, poly(lactic-co-glycolic) acid, and polycaprolactone, all of which are biodegradable, have been used to carry anti-cancer drugs. Encapsulating the therapeutic in a polymer and adding targeting agents decreases the toxicity of the drug to healthy cells.

Sutures made from polyglycolic acid. These sutures are absorbable and will be degraded by the body over time. Polyglycolic acid suture ( PGA-Dexon) 01.JPG
Sutures made from polyglycolic acid. These sutures are absorbable and will be degraded by the body over time.

Biodegradable polymers and biomaterials are also of significant interest for tissue engineering and regeneration. Tissue engineering is the ability to regenerate tissue with the help of artificial materials. The perfection of such systems can be used to grow tissues and cells in vitro or use a biodegradable scaffold to construct new structures and organs in vitro. [27] For these uses, a biodegradable scaffold is obviously preferred as it reduces the risk of immunological reaction and rejection of the foreign object. While many of the more advanced systems are not ready for human therapeutics, there is significant positive research in animal studies. For example, it was possible to successfully grow rat smooth muscle tissue on a polycaprolactone/polylactide scaffold. [28] Further research and development may allow for this technology to be used for tissue replacement, support, or enhancement in humans. One of the ultimate goals of tissue engineering is the creation of organs, such as the kidney, from basic constituents. A scaffolding is necessary to grow the entity into a functioning organ, after which the polymer scaffold would degrade and be safely eliminated from the body. There are reports of using polyglycolic acid and polylactic acid to engineer vascular tissue for heart repair. [29] The scaffold can be used to help create undamaged arteries and vessels.

In addition to tissue engineering, biodegradable polymers are being used in orthopedic applications, such as bone and joint replacement. [30] A wide variety of non-biodegradable polymers have been used for orthopedic applications including silicone rubber, polyethylene, acrylic resins, polyurethane, polypropylene, and polymethylmethacrylate. The primary role of many of these polymers was to act as a biocompatible cement in the fixation of prostheses and in the replacement of joints. Newer biologically compatible synthetic and natural biodegradable polymers have been developed; these include polyglycolide, polylactide, polyhydroxobutyrate, chitosan, hyaluronic acid, and hydrogels. In particular, poly(2-hydroxyethyl-methacrylate), polyethylene glycol, chitosan, and hyaluronic acid have been used extensively in the repair of cartilage, ligaments, and tendons. For example, poly(L-lactide) (PLA), is used to make screws and darts for meniscal repair and is marketed under the trade name Clearfix Mensical Dart/Screw. [25] PLA is a slow degrading polymer and requires times greater than two years to degrade and be absorbed by the body.

Packaging and materials

A trash bag made of a poly(lactic acid) blend, marketed under the brand Bio-Flex(r) Waste Bag made of PLA-Blend Bio-Flex.jpg
A trash bag made of a poly(lactic acid) blend, marketed under the brand Bio-Flex®

In addition to medicine, biodegradable polymers are often used to reduce the volume of waste in packaging materials. [6] There is also significant effort to replace materials derived from petrochemicals with those that can be made from biodegradable components. One of the most commonly used polymers for packaging purposes is polylactic acid, PLA. [32] The production of PLA has several advantages, the most important of which is the ability to tailor the physical properties of the polymer through processing methods. PLA is used for a variety of films, wrappings, and containers (including bottles and cups). In 2002, FDA ruled that PLA was safe to use in all food packaging. [33] BASF markets a product called ecovio® which is a biobased blend of the company's certified compostable and biodegradable co-polyester ecoflex® and PLA. [34] An application for this certified compostable and bio-based material is for any kind of plastic films such as shopping bags or organic waste bags. ecovio® can also be used in other applications, like thermoformed and injection moulded articles. Even paper-coating or particle foamed products can be produced by this very versatile biopolymer.

Notable examples

2012 Presidential Green Chemistry Challenge

Carbon dioxide directly used in a polymer backbone Example Novamer Polymer.png
Carbon dioxide directly used in a polymer backbone

Each year hundreds of millions of tons of plastics are produced from petroleum. [35] Most of these plastics will remain in landfills for years to come or litter the environment posing significant health risks to animals; however, the average person's lifestyle would be impractical without them (see Applications). One solution to this conundrum lies in biodegradable polymers. These polymers have the distinct advantage that over time they will break down. Dr. Geoffrey Coates headed research to create catalysts that can not only efficiently create these biodegradable polymers, but the polymers also incorporate the greenhouse gas and global warming contributor, CO2, and, environmentally present ground-ozone producer, CO. [36] These two gases can be found or produced in high concentrations from agricultural waste, coal, and industrial applications as byproducts. [37] Not only do the catalysts utilize these normally wasted and environmentally unfriendly gases, but they also do it extremely efficiently with high turnover numbers and frequencies in addition to good selectivity. [37] These catalysts have been actively used by Novomer Inc to make polycarbonates that can replace the current coating bisphenol A (BPA) found in many food and drink packaging. Novomer's analysis shows that if used in all cases, these biodegradable polymer coatings could not only sequester, but also avoid further production of CO2 in hundreds of millions of metric tons in just a single year. [37]

Future concerns and potential problems

First, the properties such as weight capacity of biodegradable polymer are different from the traditional polymer, which may be unfavorable in many daily applications. Second, engineering issues. Biodegradable polymers are mostly plant-base materials, which means they originally come from organic source like soybean or corn. These organic plants have the chance to be sprayed with pesticides which contain chemicals which can contaminate the crops and be transferred into the final finished product. Third, low biodegradation rate. Compared to the traditional deposition way, the biodegradation for polymer has a longer degradation period. Polyhydroxyalkanoatesas an example, have a degradation period for up to three to six months. Last, the cost issue. The production technology of biodegradable polymer is still immature, the cost of resources such as labor and raw materials in large production quantity scale will be comparably high.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Biopolymer</span> Polymer produced by a living organism

Biopolymers are natural polymers produced by the cells of living organisms. Like other polymers, biopolymers consist of monomeric units that are covalently bonded in chains to form larger molecules. There are three main classes of biopolymers, classified according to the monomers used and the structure of the biopolymer formed: polynucleotides, polypeptides, and polysaccharides. The Polynucleotides, RNA and DNA, are long polymers of nucleotides. Polypeptides include proteins and shorter polymers of amino acids; some major examples include collagen, actin, and fibrin. Polysaccharides are linear or branched chains of sugar carbohydrates; examples include starch, cellulose, and alginate. Other examples of biopolymers include natural rubbers, suberin and lignin, cutin and cutan, melanin, and polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Biodegradation</span> Decomposition by living organisms

Biodegradation is the breakdown of organic matter by microorganisms, such as bacteria and fungi. It is generally assumed to be a natural process, which differentiates it from composting. Composting is a human-driven process in which biodegradation occurs under a specific set of circumstances.

Ingeo is the trademarked brand name for a range of polylactic acid (PLA) biopolymers owned by NatureWorks.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Polyglycolide</span> Chemical compound

Polyglycolide or poly(glycolic acid) (PGA), also spelled as polyglycolic acid, is a biodegradable, thermoplastic polymer and the simplest linear, aliphatic polyester. It can be prepared starting from glycolic acid by means of polycondensation or ring-opening polymerization. PGA has been known since 1954 as a tough fiber-forming polymer. Owing to its hydrolytic instability, however, its use has initially been limited. Currently polyglycolide and its copolymers (poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) with lactic acid, poly(glycolide-co-caprolactone) with ε-caprolactone and poly (glycolide-co-trimethylene carbonate) with trimethylene carbonate) are widely used as a material for the synthesis of absorbable sutures and are being evaluated in the biomedical field.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Polycaprolactone</span> Chemical compound

Polycaprolactone (PCL) is a synthetic, semi-crystalline, biodegradable polyester with a melting point of about 60 °C and a glass transition temperature of about −60 °C. The most common use of polycaprolactone is in the production of speciality polyurethanes. Polycaprolactones impart good resistance to water, oil, solvent and chlorine to the polyurethane produced.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">PLGA</span> Copolymer of varying ratios of polylactic acid and polyglycolic acid

PLGA, PLG, or poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) is a copolymer which is used in a host of Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved therapeutic devices, owing to its biodegradability and biocompatibility. PLGA is synthesized by means of ring-opening co-polymerization of two different monomers, the cyclic dimers (1,4-dioxane-2,5-diones) of glycolic acid and lactic acid. Polymers can be synthesized as either random or block copolymers thereby imparting additional polymer properties. Common catalysts used in the preparation of this polymer include tin(II) 2-ethylhexanoate, tin(II) alkoxides, or aluminum isopropoxide. During polymerization, successive monomeric units are linked together in PLGA by ester linkages, thus yielding a linear, aliphatic polyester as a product.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Polylactic acid</span> Biodegradable polymer

Polylactic acid, also known as poly(lactic acid) or polylactide (PLA), is a thermoplastic polyester with backbone formula (C
3H
4O
2)
n or [–C(CH
3)HC(=O)O–]
n, formally obtained by condensation of lactic acid C(CH
3)(OH)HCOOH with loss of water. It can also be prepared by ring-opening polymerization of lactide [–C(CH
3)HC(=O)O–]
2, the cyclic dimer of the basic repeating unit.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bioplastic</span> Plastics derived from renewable biomass sources

Bioplastics are plastic materials produced from renewable biomass sources, such as vegetable fats and oils, corn starch, straw, woodchips, sawdust, recycled food waste, etc. Some bioplastics are obtained by processing directly from natural biopolymers including polysaccharides and proteins, while others are chemically synthesised from sugar derivatives and lipids from either plants or animals, or biologically generated by fermentation of sugars or lipids. In contrast, common plastics, such as fossil-fuel plastics are derived from petroleum or natural gas.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Polyester</span> Category of polymers, in which the monomers are joined together by ester links

Polyester is a category of polymers that contain the ester functional group in every repeat unit of their main chain. As a specific material, it most commonly refers to a type called polyethylene terephthalate (PET). Polyesters include naturally occurring chemicals, such as in plants and insects, as well as synthetics such as polybutyrate. Natural polyesters and a few synthetic ones are biodegradable, but most synthetic polyesters are not. Synthetic polyesters are used extensively in clothing.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Polydioxanone</span>

Polydioxanone or poly-p-dioxanone is a colorless, crystalline, biodegradable synthetic polymer.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Biodegradable plastic</span> Plastics that can be decomposed by the action of living organisms

Biodegradable plastics are plastics that can be decomposed by the action of living organisms, usually microbes, into water, carbon dioxide, and biomass. Biodegradable plastics are commonly produced with renewable raw materials, micro-organisms, petrochemicals, or combinations of all three.

Polymer engineering is generally an engineering field that designs, analyses, and modifies polymer materials. Polymer engineering covers aspects of the petrochemical industry, polymerization, structure and characterization of polymers, properties of polymers, compounding and processing of polymers and description of major polymers, structure property relations and applications.

PBAT is a biodegradable random copolymer, specifically a copolyester of adipic acid, 1,4-butanediol and terephthalic acid. PBAT is produced by many different manufacturers and may be known by the brand names ecoflex, Wango,Ecoworld, Eastar Bio, and Origo-Bi. It is also called poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) and sometimes polybutyrate-adipate-terephthalate or even just "polybutyrate". It is generally marketed as a fully biodegradable alternative to low-density polyethylene, having many similar properties including flexibility and resilience, allowing it to be used for many similar uses such as plastic bags and wraps. It is depicted as a block co-polymer here due to the common synthetic method of first synthesizing two copolymer blocks and then combining them. However, it is important to note that the actual structure of the polymer is a random co-polymer of the blocks shown.

Many opportunities exist for the application of synthetic biodegradable polymers in the biomedical area particularly in the fields of tissue engineering and controlled drug delivery. Degradation is important in biomedicine for many reasons. Degradation of the polymeric implant means surgical intervention may not be required in order to remove the implant at the end of its functional life, eliminating the need for a second surgery. In tissue engineering, biodegradable polymers can be designed such to approximate tissues, providing a polymer scaffold that can withstand mechanical stresses, provide a suitable surface for cell attachment and growth, and degrade at a rate that allows the load to be transferred to the new tissue. In the field of controlled drug delivery, biodegradable polymers offer tremendous potential either as a drug delivery system alone or in conjunction to functioning as a medical device.

In polymer chemistry, the term prepolymer or pre-polymer, refers to a monomer or system of monomers that have been reacted to an intermediate-molecular mass state. This material is capable of further polymerization by reactive groups to a fully cured, high-molecular-mass state. As such, mixtures of reactive polymers with un-reacted monomers may also be referred to as pre-polymers. The term "pre-polymer" and "polymer precursor" may be interchanged.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">PHBV</span> Chemical compound

Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate), commonly known as PHBV, is a polyhydroxyalkanoate-type polymer. It is biodegradable, nontoxic, biocompatible plastic produced naturally by bacteria and a good alternative for many non-biodegradable synthetic polymers. It is a thermoplastic linear aliphatic polyester. It is obtained by the copolymerization of 3-hydroxybutanoic acid and 3-hydroxypentanoic acid. PHBV is used in speciality packaging, orthopedic devices and in controlled release of drugs. PHBV undergoes bacterial degradation in the environment.

Biodegradable additives are additives that enhance the biodegradation of polymers by allowing microorganisms to utilize the carbon within the polymer chain as a source of energy. Biodegradable additives attract microorganisms to the polymer through quorum sensing after biofilm creation on the plastic product. Additives are generally in masterbatch formation that use carrier resins such as polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS) or polyethylene terephthalate (PET).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Polybutylene succinate</span> Biodegradable polymer

Polybutylene succinate (PBS) is a thermoplastic polymer resin of the polyester family. PBS is a biodegradable aliphatic polyester with properties that are comparable to polypropylene.

Biodegradable athletic footwear is athletic footwear that uses biodegradable materials with the ability to compost at the end-of-life phase. Such materials include natural biodegradable polymers, synthetic biodegradable polymers, and biodegradable blends. The use of biodegradable materials is a long-term solution to landfill pollution that can significantly help protect the natural environment by replacing the synthetic, non-biodegradable polymers found in athletic footwear.

Polyorthoesters are polymers with the general structure –[–R–O–C(R1, OR2)–O–R3–]n– whereas the residue R2 can also be part of a heterocyclic ring with the residue R. Polyorthoesters are formed by transesterification of orthoesters with diols or by polyaddition between a diol and a diketene acetal, such as 3,9-diethylidene-2,4,8,10-tetraoxaspiro[5.5]undecane.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 editors, Luc Avérous, Eric Pollet (2012). Environmental silicate nano-biocomposites. London: Springer. ISBN   978-1-4471-4108-2.{{cite book}}: |last= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Bastioli, editor, Catia (2005). Handbook of biodegradable polymers. Shawbury, Shrewsbury, Shropshire, U.K.: Rapra Technology. ISBN   9781847350442.{{cite book}}: |first= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  3. ↑ Sadeghi-Varkani, Atina; Emam-Djomeh, Zahra; Askari, Gholamreza (2018). "Physicochemical and microstructural properties of a novel edible film synthesized from Balangu seed mucilage". International Journal of Biological Macromolecules. 108: 1110–1119. doi:10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2017.11.029. PMID   29126944.
  4. ↑ Nutton, Vivian (2012). Ancient medicine (2nd ed.). London: Routledge. ISBN   9780415520942.
  5. ↑ editor, David B. Troy (2005). Remington : The science and practice of pharmacy (21st ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins. ISBN   978-0-7817-4673-1.{{cite book}}: |last= has generic name (help)
  6. 1 2 3 Vroman, Isabelle; Tighzert, Lan (1 April 2009). "Biodegradable Polymers". Materials. 2 (2): 307–344. Bibcode:2009Mate....2..307V. doi: 10.3390/ma2020307 . PMC   5445709 .
  7. 1 2 Cox, David L. Nelson, Michael M. (2008). Lehninger principles of biochemistry (5th ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman. ISBN   978-0-7167-7108-1.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  8. 1 2 3 al.], edited by Buddy D. Ratner ... [et (2004). Biomaterials science : an introduction to materials in medicine (2nd ed.). San Diego, Calif.: Elsevier Academic Press. ISBN   978-0125824637.{{cite book}}: |first= has generic name (help)
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 Lendlein, edited by Andreas; Sisson, Adam (2011). Handbook of biodegradable polymers : synthesis, characterization and applications ([Online Resource] ed.). Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. ISBN   978-3527635832.{{cite book}}: |first= has generic name (help)
  10. 1 2 Amass, Wendy; Amass, Allan; Tighe, Brian (October 1998). "A review of biodegradable polymers: uses, current developments in the synthesis and characterization of biodegradable polyesters, blends of biodegradable polymers and recent advances in biodegradation studies". Polymer International. 47 (2): 89–144. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-0126(1998100)47:2<89::AID-PI86>3.0.CO;2-F.
  11. ↑ Brand, edited by Michael L. Johnson, Ludwig (2011). Computer methods (1st ed.). San Diego, CA: Academic Press. ISBN   9781118164792.{{cite book}}: |first= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  12. ↑ Bastioli, ed.: Catia (2005). Handbook of biodegradable polymers (1. publ. ed.). Shawbury: Rapra Technology Ltd. ISBN   978-1-85957-389-1.{{cite book}}: |first= has generic name (help)
  13. ↑ Martin, O; Avérous, L (June 2001). "Poly(lactic acid): plasticization and properties of biodegradable multiphase systems". Polymer. 42 (14): 6209–6219. doi:10.1016/S0032-3861(01)00086-6.
  14. ↑ Hollinger, Jeffrey O., ed. (2012). An introduction to biomaterials (2nd ed.). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press/Taylor & Francis. ISBN   9781439812563.
  15. ↑ Lligadas, Gerard; Ronda, Juan C.; Galià, Marina; Cádiz, Virginia (8 November 2010). "Plant Oils as Platform Chemicals for Polyurethane Synthesis: Current State-of-the-Art". Biomacromolecules. 11 (11): 2825–2835. doi:10.1021/bm100839x. PMID   20939529.
  16. ↑ Pandey, Jitendra K.; Kumar, A. Pratheep; Misra, Manjusri; Mohanty, Amar K.; Drzal, Lawrence T.; Palsingh, Raj (2005-04-01). "Recent Advances in Biodegradable Nanocomposites". Journal of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology. 5 (4): 497–526. doi:10.1166/jnn.2005.111. ISSN   1533-4880. PMID   16004113.
  17. ↑ Phan, Duc C.; Goodwin, David G.; Frank, Benjamin P.; Bouwer, Edward J.; Fairbrother, D. Howard (Oct 2018). "Biodegradability of carbon nanotube/polymer nanocomposites under aerobic mixed culture conditions". Science of the Total Environment. 639: 804–814. Bibcode:2018ScTEn.639..804P. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.05.137. ISSN   0048-9697. PMID   29803051. S2CID   44063304.
  18. ↑ Noda, Isao; Satkowski, Michael M.; Dowrey, Anthony E.; Marcott, Curtis (2004-03-15). "Polymer Alloys of Nodax Copolymers and Poly(lactic acid)". Macromolecular Bioscience. 4 (3): 269–275. doi:10.1002/mabi.200300093. ISSN   1616-5187. PMID   15468217.
  19. ↑ Li, Zhengqiang; Liu, Peng; Yang, Ting; Sun, Ying; You, Qi; Li, Jiale; Wang, Zilin; Han, Bing (2016-04-07). "Composite poly(l-lactic-acid)/silk fibroin scaffold prepared by electrospinning promotes chondrogenesis for cartilage tissue engineering". Journal of Biomaterials Applications. 30 (10): 1552–1565. doi:10.1177/0885328216638587. ISSN   0885-3282. PMID   27059497. S2CID   206559967.
  20. 1 2 Kržan, Andrej. "Biodegradable polymers and plastics" (PDF). Plastice. Retrieved 9 February 2014.
  21. ↑ Singh, Deepti; Thomas, Daniel (April 2019). "Advances in medical polymer technology towards the panacea of complex 3D tissue and organ manufacture". American Journal of Surgery. 217 (4): 807–808. doi:10.1016/j.amjsurg.2018.05.012. ISSN   1879-1883. PMID   29803500. S2CID   44091616.
  22. ↑ Milani, Priscila; França, Débora; Balieiro, Aline Gambaro; Faez, Roselena; Milani, Priscila; França, Débora; Balieiro, Aline Gambaro; Faez, Roselena (September 2017). "Polymers and its applications in agriculture". Polímeros. 27 (3): 256–266. doi: 10.1590/0104-1428.09316 . ISSN   0104-1428. S2CID   4596782.
  23. ↑ "Improving biopolymers for packaging applications using surface-tailored cellulose nanocrystals – Research Highlights - US Forest Service Research & Development". www.fs.fed.us. Retrieved 2020-10-05.
  24. ↑ Tian, Huayu; Tang, Zhaohui; Zhuang, Xiuli; Chen, Xuesi; Jing, Xiabin (February 2012). "Biodegradable synthetic polymers: Preparation, functionalization and biomedical application". Progress in Polymer Science. 37 (2): 237–280. doi:10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2011.06.004.
  25. 1 2 Middleton, John C; Tipton, Arthur J (December 2000). "Synthetic biodegradable polymers as orthopedic devices". Biomaterials. 21 (23): 2335–2346. doi:10.1016/S0142-9612(00)00101-0. PMID   11055281.
  26. ↑ Caballero-George, Catherina; Marin; Briceño (August 2013). "Critical evaluation of biodegradable polymers used in nanodrugs". International Journal of Nanomedicine. 8: 3071–90. doi: 10.2147/IJN.S47186 . PMC   3753153 . PMID   23990720.
  27. ↑ Bronzino, edited by Joon B. Park, Joseph D. (2002). Biomaterials Principles and Applications. Hoboken: CRC Press. ISBN   978-1-4200-4003-6.{{cite book}}: |first= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  28. ↑ Martina, Monique; Hutmacher, Dietmar W (February 2007). "Biodegradable polymers applied in tissue engineering research: a review". Polymer International. 56 (2): 145–157. doi:10.1002/pi.2108.
  29. ↑ Kurobe, H.; Maxfield, M. W.; Breuer, C. K.; Shinoka, T. (28 June 2012). "Concise Review: Tissue-Engineered Vascular Grafts for Cardiac Surgery: Past, Present, and Future". Stem Cells Translational Medicine. 1 (7): 566–571. doi:10.5966/sctm.2012-0044. PMC   3659720 . PMID   23197861.
  30. ↑ Navarro, M; Michiardi, A; Castano, O; Planell, J.A (6 October 2008). "Biomaterials in orthopaedics". Journal of the Royal Society Interface. 5 (27): 1137–1158. doi:10.1098/rsif.2008.0151. PMC   2706047 . PMID   18667387.
  31. ↑ "Bio-Flex". Archived from the original on 2014-02-17. Retrieved 10 February 2014.
  32. ↑ Jamshidian, Majid; Tehrany, Elmira Arab; Imran, Muhammad; Jacquot, Muriel; Desobry, Stéphane (26 August 2010). "Poly-Lactic Acid: Production, Applications, Nanocomposites, and Release Studies". Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety. 9 (5): 552–571. doi:10.1111/j.1541-4337.2010.00126.x. PMID   33467829.
  33. ↑ "FDA Food Contact Notification" . Retrieved 10 February 2014.
  34. ↑ "BASF ecovio" . Retrieved 9 February 2017.
  35. ↑ "Plastics- The Facts 2012" (PDF). Plastics Europe. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-05-29. Retrieved 9 February 2014.
  36. ↑ "Winners of Presidential Green Chemistry Challenge Awards". American Chemical Society. Archived from the original on 10 July 2015. Retrieved 9 February 2014.
  37. 1 2 3 "2012 Academic Award". United States Environmental Protection Agency. 2013-03-20. Archived from the original on 10 July 2015. Retrieved 9 February 2014.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.