Boomerang effect (psychology)

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In social psychology, the boomerang effect, also known as "reactance", refers to the unintended consequences of an attempt to persuade resulting in the adoption of an opposing position instead. It is sometimes also referred to as "the theory of psychological reactance", stating that attempts to restrict a person's freedom often produce an "anticonformity boomerang effect". [1] In other words, the boomerang effect is a situation where people tend to pick the opposite of what something or someone is saying or doing because of how it is presented to them. Typically, the more aggressive something is presented, people would more than likely want to do the opposite. [2] For example, if someone were to walk up to a yard with a sign saying "KEEP OFF LAWN" the person would be more likely to want to walk on the lawn because of the way they read the sign. If the sign read "please stay off my grass" people would be more likely to follow the directions.

Contents

Conditions and explanations

Early recognition

Hovland, Janis and Kelly [3] first recorded and named the boomerang effect in 1953, noting that it is more likely under certain conditions:

Later in 1957, Hovland, Sherif and Harvey [4] further discussed the necessity of understanding these unintended attitude changes in persuasion communication and suggested possible approaches for analysis via underlying motivational processes, psychophysical stimuli, as well as ego-involving verbal material. Jack Brehm and Arthur Cohen were among the first to provide theoretical explanations.

Jack Brehm [5] first raised attention to the phenomenon a fait accompli that might conceivably create dissonance if an event has led to the opposite behavior predicted at a prior point. He conducted an experiment to examine the behaviors of eighth graders eating a disliked vegetable. About half of them were told that their parents would be informed on the vegetable they ate. Then liking the vegetable was measured before and after the procedure. The results show that for kids who indicated little or no discrepancy between serving and actually eating the disliked vegetable at home, they should experience little or no dissonance in liking the vegetable from the low to the high consequence condition. They thereby concluded that the greater was the individual's initial dislike, the greater was the pressure produced by the experiment to increase his liking. In Jack Brehm's experiment it shows how even at a young age we are greatly impacted by the boomerang effect and it can have positive or negative outcomes that come with it. There was also larger resistance to change the attitude when the initial attitude was more extreme. However, they argued that in this experiment, the pressure to reduce dissonance increased more rapidly with increasing discrepancy than did the resistance against change, which verified Festinger's cognitive dissonance theory. [6] In a follow-up, [7] Sensenig and Brehm focused on the boomerang effect in experiments and applied Brehm's psychological reactance theory [8] to explain the unintended attitudinal change.

Psychological reactance theory analysis

Sensenig & Brehm [7] applied Brehm's reactance theory [8] to explain the boomerang effect. They argued that when a person thinks that his freedom to support a position on attitude issue is eliminated, the psychological reactance will be aroused and then he consequently moves his attitudinal position in a way so as to restore the lost freedom. He told college students to write an essay supporting one side of five issues and led some of them believe that their persuasive essays might influence the decision on those issues. Therefore, the people who had the impression that their preference was taken into account in the decision regarding which side they would support on the 1st issue showed attitude change in favor of the preferred position, while others who are concerned with their freedom lost move toward the intended position held by the communicator.

This experiment resulted in various links in the chain of reasoning: (a) when a person's freedom is threatened, his motivational state will move toward restoration of the threatened freedom; (b) the greater the implied threatened freedoms, the greater the tendency to restore the threatened freedom will be; (c) the reestablishment of freedom may take the form of moving one's attitudinal position away from the position forced by others.

Jack Brehm and Sharon Brehm later developed psychological reactance theory [1] and discussed its applications. [9] They also listed a series of reactions reactance can evoke in addition to the boomerang effect, which includes but is not limited to related boomerang effect, [10] [11] indirect restoration [1] or vicarious boomerang effects. [10] [11]

Cognitive dissonance theory analysis

The dissonance theory by Leon Festinger [6] has thrived the progress of social psychology research in the 1960s as it is not confined to the prediction of intended influence but can support almost all sub fields of psychology studies. Although Festinger himself was ambiguous about the role of commitment in the theory, later researchers such as Brehm [12] and Cohen [13] have emphasized its importance in providing a general conceptualization of the boomerang effect. Earlier studies by Thibaut and Strickland [14] and Kelley and Volkhart [15] have also provided support to this line of reasoning by Dissonance Theory despite that they were not phrased using the exact terminology.

According to Cohen, [13] dissonance theory can provide not only an explanation, but also a prediction of both the intended and the unintended influence of persuasion communication on attitudinal change. According to Saul McLeod, Cognitive dissonance refers to a situation involving conflicting attitudes, beliefs or behaviors. This produces a feeling of mental discomfort leading to an alteration in one of the attitudes, beliefs or behaviors to reduce the discomfort and restore balance. For example, when people smoke (behavior) and they know that smoking causes cancer (cognition), they are in a state of cognitive dissonance. [16] Showing how the dissonance theory directly correlates to the boomerang effect has made impact on our knowledge of why humans act and can be influenced the way that they are.

In his experiment, he presented factors that can lead to a boomerang effect, while suggesting a broader view of the unintended consequences than simply the case of a response to attempted attitude change. Cohen proposed the following dissonance formulation model for the unintended attitude change by persuasive communication. First, suppose that dissonance aroused in regard to some unspecified cognition. According to Festinger's Cognitive Dissonance Theory, we know the dissonance could be reduced by a change in the cognition. Now suppose the resistance to change is great because the actual event cannot be changed and its meaning is ambiguous (for example, the person is strongly committed to the original cognition position), then the person will resort to other forms to reduce or eliminate the dissonance. In this latter form, one can solve the discrepancy problem through the addition of elements consonant either with the original cognition, in which produced the boomerang effect. Cohen formulated a situation of "mutual boomerang effect", in which the communicator is strongly committed to convince the other person of his attitudinal position by means of a persuasion communication. Because of this strong original attitude position the communicator holds, Cohen predicts that the more distant the target person's original attitude, the more dissonance will be also experienced by the communicator. The expected "unintended influence" arises when the communicator tried to persuade the other of the worth of his own position by becoming even more extreme in that position. He asked his subjects write a strongly persuasive essay to the partners with an opposite side of attitude on an issue, who are actually confederates. The subjects here thus act as the communicator to bring their partners over to their own sides. The subjects were also asked to rate the partners' likability and friendliness before they read "their partner's essay" returned. Cohen used attitude change of the partners as the manipulation of dissonance where he randomly allocated his subjects into high-dissonance group and low-dissonance group. The results exposed strong boomerang effects for high-dissonance group. He also found out that the response to the likability and friendliness of the partners are relevant. The data showed that the difference between dissonance conditions was largely confined to and exaggerated for those subjects who originally rated their partners to be relatively more likable and friendly.[ citation needed ]

Cohen's study on boomerang effect has broadened the scope of persuasive communication from merely the recipient's reaction to the persuasive message to the communicator's attempt to influence the target. Dissonance theory suggests that the basic issue is under what conditions a person strengthens his original attitude as a way of reducing some attitudinal inconsistency. Cohen suggested that, one can reduce the dissonance via boomerang when dissonance is created (a) with a strong commitment to convincing the other person, (b) with no anticipation of a further influence attempt, and (c) with no easy chance to repudiate the other person. His results on the likability have strengthened the interpretation as the low-dissonance group who found their partners likable and friendly move toward them in the attitudes more, while likability only increased dissonance for the highs.

In other words, the dissonance can be reduced by becoming more extreme in the original position, thereby increasing the proportion of cognition supporting the initial stand and decreasing the proportion of dissonant cognition.

Other analysis

Boomerang effect is sometimes also referred to the attribution/attitude boomerang effect. Researchers applied Heider's attribution theory [17] to explain why it would occur. For example, Skowronski, Carlston, Mae, and Crawford demonstrated association-based effects in their study on spontaneous trait transference. [18] Despite that the descriptions of other people are independent of the communicator, simple associative processes link the two together and produce boomerang phenomena.

Examples of applications

Consumer behavior

Wendlandt and Schrader [19] studied the resistance of consumers against loyalty programs encountered in relationship marketing. They found that (a) contractual bonds provoke reactance effects, (b) social-psychological bonds increased neither reactance nor perceived utility of the program, (c) economic bonds raised perceived utility to a certain threshold level, from which the reactance effect dominated afterwards. Their results helped managers to evaluate the effects from implementing consumer retention measures and advised a cautious and limited application of loyalty programs. In 2017, a study was done to test the significance of the boomerang effect, Based on this 2×2 matrix we designed a pilot and three experimental studies that examine the different possible combinations. In the pilot study we tested several different biases and contexts to make sure that they are indeed perceived as socially sensitive by participants. In study 1 we replicated the results of Nasie et al. (2014), and demonstrated how teaching people about a neutral bias that might be relevant to their behavior in a neutral context changed their behavior and reduced the bias (combination #1). In Study 2 we taught decision-makers about an inherently sensitive bias that may imply they were holding chauvinistic views in a sensitive social context, of female representation in politics (combination #4). Finally, to test if a sensitive social context is enough to evoke the boomerang effect even toward a neutral bias, in Study 3 we taught decision makers about a neutral bias in a sensitive social context of a gender in the workplace (combination #3). In Studies 2 & 3, we hypothesized that the boomerang effect predicted by self-affirmation literature (Schumann & Dweck, 2014; Sherman & Cohen, 2006; Steele, 1988) would be a result of participants being motivated to justify their actions and stay set in their ways in order to avoid being labeled as chauvinistic or misogynistic. Since inherently sensitive biases are always linked to sensitive social contexts combination #2 was covered by Study 2 as well, and did not call for another Study. [20] In the study they found that using the boomerang effect had a significantly positive outcome. This is an example on how some individuals were aware of the boomerang effect and some were not but both showed a positive result.

Deliberate exploitation

The tactic of reverse psychology, which is a deliberate exploitation of an anticipated boomerang effect, involves one's attempt of feigning a desire for an outcome opposite to that of the truly desired one, such that the prospect's resistance will work in the direction that the exploiter actually desires (e.g., "Please don't fling me in that briar patch").

Persuasive health communication

Researchers have reported that some public health interventions have produced effects opposite to those intended in health communication such as smoking and alcohol consumption behaviors, and thus have employed various methods to study them under different contexts. Ringold argued that some consumer's negative reactions on alcoholic beverage warnings and education efforts can be explained concisely by Brehm's psychological reactance theory. [21] These results suggested that boomerang effects should be considered as potential costs of launching mass communication campaigns. Dillard and Shen also emphasized the importance of reactance theory to understand failures in persuasive health communication but argued that there be a measurement problem. [22] They thereby developed four alternative conceptual perspectives on the nature of reactance as well as provided an empirical test of each. Hyland and Birrell [23] found that a government health warning on cigarette advertisements published in 1979 led to a "boomerang effect" leading to an increase desire to smoke after viewing the campaign. The results of their study indicated that the presence of a more aggressive health warning in an advertisement increased the desire to smoke and it decreased the perceived goodness of the advertisement. This means the people viewing the sign decided it was not a helpful campaign to decrease smoking. Another negative impact of this effect happens in drug and supplement marketing. Bolton et al. [24] researched how the marketing of health drugs and supplements lead to less healthy life style due to the drugs' marketing reducing risk perceptions and perceived importance of, and motivation to engage in, complementary health-protective behaviors. Consumers believe it is not important to have a healthy lifestyle if they use the drugs and supplements.

In a 2010 study, researchers explored ways to reduce and/or eliminate the boomerang effect. 289 undergraduate students from the University of Georgia participated, and each of them was assigned to a random section of laptop computers, which would play public service announcement videos on different message topics (on drunk-driving and anti-smoking) and with varying levels of empathy present. [25] After watching each of the five public service announcements they were assigned, participants recorded their immediate perceptions, and rated each clip on how much it invoked an emotional response within them. Students recorded their attitude towards the advocacy of each clip, completed a trait empathy scale and stated some demographic information. [25] Results in this study suggested that empathy-induced messages in storytelling seemed to reduce psychological reactance in users, therefore reducing the boomerang effect. [25]

The Boomerang Effect has also shown up in different public health campaigns. In the 1980s, more campaigns for seatbelt laws were happening around America. In addition, more laws were also being created. However, this caused mixed reactions with some American citizens. While seatbelts were included in cars starting in 1968, there wasn’t legislation endorsing them. [26] Around the late 1970s and into the 1980s, only 14 percent of Americans consistently wore their seatbelts. [27] Some citizens believed the inclusion of these seatbelt laws was resistance towards their rights in a free society. For example, when state representative David Hollister introduced that there would now be a monetary fine if a driver is found not wearing a seatbelt, he received hate mail comparing him to Hitler. [26]

Environmental behaviors

Mann and Hill [28] investigated the case of litter control and showed that the combination of different positive influence strategies could actually create boomerang effect and decrease the amount of appropriate disposal of waste. Schultz et al. (2007) conducted a field experiment in which the normative messages were used to promote household energy conservation where they found the descriptive message of neighborhood usage created a boomerang effect depending on the high prior household consumption. They also eliminated the boomerang effect by adding an injunctive message about social approval. Their results offered an empirical evidence for prior research on the theoretical framework for boomerang effects. [29] Swatuk et al. [30] found a boomerang effect regarding a call of climate control action from locals after The Paris Agreement. The call was considered 'maladaptation' due to it calling for displacement of communities from traditional lands. They suggest careful articulation of policy and program decisions to improve policy making.

Helping

Schwartz and Howard discussed the occurrence of boomerang effects in helping as they found out the presence of certain factors presumed to activate norms favoring helping actually result in decreasing helping. [31] They identified three related forms of such boomerang effect in helping behavior. First, when individuals perceived the framing of a help appeal to have excessive statements of need, they become suspicious and concern the motive and the true severity of the original request (i.e., mistrust). Reactance theory was used to provide the second explanation. They stated that individuals would respond to threatened freedoms by either acting counter to the attempted social influence, or declaring themselves helpless. The third type involves undermining internalized benefits by external sanctions.

National and human security

Liotta attempted to understand policy decisions and future choices driven by a blurring of concerns that involve state-centric security and human security. She suggested that a boomerang effect occurs in the area in which excessive focus on one aspect of security at the expense or detriment of the other is a poor balancing of ends and means in a changing security environment and instead we should focus on both national and human security. [32]

Political beliefs

Nyhan & Reifler [33] conducted experiments in which subjects read mock news articles including a misleading claim from a politician, or such a claim followed by a correction. They found that the corrections frequently fail to reduce misconceptions for the ideological group targeted by the misinformation. They also found cases of what they called a "backfire effect" (i.e. a boomerang effect) in which the corrections strengthened belief in the misinformation. They attribute this to motivated reasoning on the part of the affected participants. Later research did not find evidence of this effect though, suggesting it was at least not prevalent. [34] [35]

Current Research

Alex Kresovich conducted a 2022 study that examined the influence of pop culture artists. The study [36] conducted multiple surveys using US youth (ages 16–24). Kresovich examined how pop music artists who discuss mental health problems affect their younger audiences. The information was retrieved from the years 2017-2021. Kresovich used the survey method to experiment if contemporary pop music artists would be the most efficient spokespeople about this issue. The study had two different rounds of experiments. Firstly, Kresovich tried using footage from pop artist's mental health campaigns. In this footage, Kresovich categorized two different types of language being used to address the audience (direct language versus mistargeted language). The second round of experiments focused more on if positively relaying the mental health information would be more effective in relating to the younger audience. [36]

For the first set of experiments, Kresovich used footage of direct language versus mistargeted language (referring to the audience as "you" versus more personally as a friend). The findings suggest that using celebrities in public service messages to discuss mental health issues like depression and advocating for support would cause the boomerang effect in its reached audience. Using this strategy with celebrities as the spokesperson increased the stigmatized beliefs in the US youth.

For the second round of experiments, Kresovich showed the celebrities that used more positive associations with depression in order to view it more positively. However, this action led to increased stigma and depression romanticizing from the young audience, both of which are consequential responses to the public health campaign. [36]

Current Examples

The boomerang effect takes place all around us in our lives. When you tell a toddler to not touch the flowers on the table or to pet the cat nicely, they turn around and knock the flowers over and yank on the cat’s tail. A study was done by Xiomeng Fan, Fengyan Cindy Cai, and Galen V. Bodenhausen on zero pricing incentives [37] in consumer demand. In this study, the comparison of a zero price versus a low price on consumers. The hypothesis was that zero pricing effects depend on the incidental costs that are associated with it. Once the study was finished, the conclusion was that zero pricing ended up raising consumer demand, when the incidental effects were lower. [37] The boomerang effect plays into this because zero pricing incentives can go either way; it depends on which way they are advertised. If they advertised with lower incidental costs, zero pricing is less effective because consumers are not risking anything on lower cost, more common items. When incidental costs are higher, zero pricing incentives are also higher because consumers are not risking anything on nicer, higher-priced items. [37]

COVID-19 is an extremely relevant and current example of the boomerang effect. Mask wearing and social distancing were very prevalent situations that were encouraged and enforced in the height of the pandemic. However, many groups of people refused to follow the suggestions and later the mandates. There were billboard ads, commercials, signs, and many more different kinds of visual and audio messages for the public to wear a mask if they needed to go out and to maintain a distance of six feet between others at all times in order to minimize the spread of the virus. This did not work for everyone because there was always a group of people who refused to wear a mask when they went grocery shopping. It resulted in other angry customers or the refusal of service from the business. The boomerang effect was demonstrated every day during the COVID-19 pandemic because of the opposite reaction that was given by the advertisements. [38] The CDC would put out a video to raise awareness for raising a mask, and those who disagreed would do the opposite and refuse to put a mask on, both indoors and outdoors.

Although a bit more dated than the previous two examples, a third example of the boomerang effect is the Murray-Darling Basin. This basin idea was thought of due to a long-term drought in Australia from 1997-2009. [39] There was a group created for the advocacy and creation of the basin, but it did not turn out as planned. The members of this authority group made it their mission to bring awareness to the public of all the good that the basin can help create and to help with water allocations across the country. [39] The basin was meant to help in future drought scenarios to prevent the issues that arose during the most recent drought and water issues. However, those outside of the authority group saw other economic, social, and environmental issues that would arise with the making of the basin. [39] The boomerang effect is demonstrated here because the authority group sent out messages advocating for all of the positives of the basin, but the opposite message was taken and the public saw more of the negative outcomes.

Mental Health Impact of COVID-19:

Since the onset of the global pandemic, COVID-19, there has been a noticeable increase in awareness surrounding mental health. An article from Mike Ryan at BCC stated that, "But what it does mean is that the vast majority of the world remains at risk. We know the pandemic will continue to evolve but we also know we have the tools that work to suppress transmission and save lives right now and they are at our disposal." [40]  People's mental stability and strength have been something psychologists and family members have taken very seriously over the past couple of years. The pandemic has especially affected individuals in high-stress professions, such as nursing. A 2020 study revealed that depressed nurses exhibited lower levels of reaction compared to their calmer counterparts, emphasizing the importance of addressing the mental well-being of healthcare professionals. [41]  Another study done in 2021 examines the anxiety disorders due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The need for up-to-date information on the mental health impacts of COVID-19 is imperative. This study had important insight on mental health and covid by stating, "In this study, we aimed to quantify the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the prevalence and burden of major depressive disorder and anxiety disorders globally in 2020." [42]  This underscores the broader conclusion that the mental health of those in demanding occupations, like nursing and medicine, is at a higher risk due to the challenging nature of their work.

Sports and Mental Health:

Mental health plays into the sports field more now than ever before, with more awareness around concussions and other major injuries that have gained more attention. The National Library of Medicine conducted research on multiple studies showing the impact of mental health within sports. There were many takeaways from this article but the section on training was influential. "Physical training is concentrated towards increasing maximum performance and capacity. On the other hand, physical inactivity is a sedentary behavior in which body movement is absent. Physical inactivity leads to increased risk of poor health, which can affect the well-being of an individual." [43]  Sports organizations have used the new mental health issues to increase the attention on player well-being. For example, the WWE, if there is a serious collision, WWE doctors will stop the match, something that did not happen just a few years ago. A notable contact sport athlete, Ronda Rousey talked about the WWE and their stoppages. Rousey went on to say, "Nikki Bella gave me an open-hand slap [in the days leading up to the match] and I was seeing stars, and I had a headache for the rest of the day," [44] This led to their match being cut short because of the injury.

The most notably being the NFL, and how they have implemented an enhanced concussion protocol to address the long-term effects of head injuries. Examples like Antonio Brown are a good example of how mental health and sports go hand and hand. In 2019 Brown told ESPN that, “If I had CTE I wouldn’t be able to have this beautiful gym, I wouldn’t be able to be creative. I wouldn’t be able to communicate. I’m perfectly fine.” A study done by the Concussion Institution showed that Brown could be suffering from a more serious dose of CTE. "Those comments illustrate a fundamental misunderstanding of CTE. Later stage CTE (stage 3 and 4) is associated with dementia, but early-stage CTE (stage 1 and 2) is more associated with what is called neurobehavioral dysregulation, which includes violent, impulsive, or explosive behavior, inappropriate behavior, aggression, rage, “short fuse,” and lack of behavioral control." [45]  Brown’s life-changing experience on the field highlights the potential mental health consequences of sustained physical impact, prompting a broader discussion about mental health within the sports community.

Role of Sports in Society:

Sports has a profound impact on society and transcending mere entertainment. Major events like the Super Bowl have become significant income generators. An article published by Virgina Tech stated that, "The Super Bowl may not be the most gambled-on sporting event, but it is a significant time for sports betting. Last year, approximately 50 million gamblers collectively wagered an estimated $16 billion on the game, with roughly one in five Americans participating in some form." [46] The ability of sports to provide an escape, especially during challenging times like the COVID-19 pandemic, is evident. The concept of a sports "bubble," where rigorous protocols allow for competition in a controlled environment, played a role in positively affecting both fans and players' mental health. The bubble had multiple aspects that were not just basketball driven. The University of Michigan was quoted saying, "The Bubble provided the NBA with a unique marketing opportunity of highlighting its tight-knit community to the rest of the world. By giving players, the ability to have social justice messages written on the back of their jerseys, the Bubble became synonymous with calls for social and political reform. This fostered a sense of community within the Bubble, which the NBA utilized to bolster its brand image. [47] "This bubble is where the athletes and coaches were tested every day and had to follow the multiple protocols involved with COVID-19, just to be able to play. Sports coming back impacted the fans and players mental health for the better. Everyone won, especially when the fans were allowed to come back and support their teams or favorite organizations. [48]

Sports and Social Movements:

The death of George Floyd triggered a global movement, particularly in the Black Lives Matter (BLM) community, influencing the sports world significantly. Major sports organizations, including the NBA, [49] NHL, [50] and NFL, [51] responded by taking action to support players and organizations advocating for racial equality. This led to a platform for athletes, especially those of color, to voice their concerns and contribute to the broader conversation on racial injustice. [52] This brings questions to the NFL and how they are responding to the players and organizations actions and how much freedom they are given to express how they feel about this topic. Knowing all of this about the NFL, the amount of attention that was brought towards the Black Lives Matter movement was fascinating. An example would be all the slogans, quotes, symbols, etc. that the players wear on the back of their shirts, helmets, on their shoes and more. These real-life situations tie back to Jack Brehm and his discovery of the boomerang effect. One of Brehm's original study involved two toys. These toys were different in shape and size but similar in color. Children were given the freedom to choose whatever toy they would like to have. Brehm did multiple studies to try and prove his theory of the boomerang effect. [53] Any amount of freedom can produce negativity and influence the effect on people. Therefore, Brehm founded the boomerang effect.

Boomerang Effect in Sports Organizations:

The boomerang effect, as observed in Jack Brehm's theory, raised questions about its presence within sports organizations. Colin Kaepernick's decision to kneel during the national anthem as a form of protest for the Black Lives Matter movement serves as a pivotal example. [54] The boomerang effect is when someone is trying to be persuaded to do a specific action, but they decide to do the complete opposite of the action they were trying to be persuaded to do. [55] At the time of the incident there was a lot of unrightful killing of people of color and black people were not getting the same opportunities. Kaepernick's decision changed how sports organizations and everyday people view the ongoing movement. Kaepernick's goal was to bring awareness and to show the actions that sparked a movement within sports, with more players and associations joining in support over time, and despite the initial backlash, changed the way people look at social movements. [54] There was a lot of backlashes from some NFL fans, but as time went on more and more players started to take a knee for the anthem. Other major associations such as the NBA [56] and NHL, [57] saw how much of an impact Kaepernick's decision was, and also began to promote the Black Lives Matter movement. Kaepernick took the original step by taking a knee and for all purposes sacrificed himself to begin a movement. As stated above, athletes were hesitant at first to take a knee and protest because of the fear of losing their job or getting fined. As time went on the entire NFL and other associations began to take a stand for their players and the unjust treatment going on in the world. This highlights how a seemingly controversial action can lead to a broader positive impact, challenging the conventional norms within sports organizations.

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Persuasion</span> Umbrella term of influence and mode of communication

Persuasion or persuasion arts is an umbrella term for influence. Persuasion can influence a person's beliefs, attitudes, intentions, motivations, or behaviours.

Social psychology is the scientific study of how thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others. Social psychologists typically explain human behavior as a result of the relationship between mental states and social situations, studying the social conditions under which thoughts, feelings, and behaviors occur, and how these variables influence social interactions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Leon Festinger</span> American social psychologist

Leon Festinger was an American social psychologist who originated the theory of cognitive dissonance and social comparison theory. The rejection of the previously dominant behaviorist view of social psychology by demonstrating the inadequacy of stimulus-response conditioning accounts of human behavior is largely attributed to his theories and research. Festinger is also credited with advancing the use of laboratory experimentation in social psychology, although he simultaneously stressed the importance of studying real-life situations, a principle he practiced when personally infiltrating a doomsday cult. He is also known in social network theory for the proximity effect.

In the field of psychology, cognitive dissonance is described as the mental discomfort people feel when their beliefs and actions are inconsistent and contradictory, ultimately making them change one factor to align better. Relevant items of information include peoples' actions, feelings, ideas, beliefs, values, and things in the environment. Cognitive dissonance is typically experienced as psychological stress when persons participate in an action that goes against one or more of those things. According to this theory, when an action or idea is psychologically inconsistent with the other, people do all in their power to change either so that they become consistent. The discomfort is triggered by the person's belief clashing with new information perceived, wherein the individual tries to find a way to resolve the contradiction to reduce their discomfort.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Job satisfaction</span> Attitude of a person towards work

Job satisfaction, employee satisfaction or work satisfaction is a measure of workers' contentment with their job, whether they like the job or individual aspects or facets of jobs, such as nature of work or supervision. Job satisfaction can be measured in cognitive (evaluative), affective, and behavioral components. Researchers have also noted that job satisfaction measures vary in the extent to which they measure feelings about the job. or cognitions about the job.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Attitude (psychology)</span> Concept in psychology and communication studies

An attitude "is a summary evaluation of an object of thought. An attitude object can be anything a person discriminates or holds in mind." Attitudes include beliefs (cognition), emotional responses (affect) and behavioral tendencies. In the classical definition an attitude is persistent, while in more contemporary conceptualizations, attitudes may vary depending upon situations, context, or moods.

Self-perception theory (SPT) is an account of attitude formation developed by psychologist Daryl Bem. It asserts that people develop their attitudes by observing their own behavior and concluding what attitudes must have caused it. The theory is counterintuitive in nature, as the conventional wisdom is that attitudes determine behaviors. Furthermore, the theory suggests that people induce attitudes without accessing internal cognition and mood states. The person interprets their own overt behaviors rationally in the same way they attempt to explain others' behaviors.

Attitudes are associated beliefs and behaviors towards some object. They are not stable, and because of the communication and behavior of other people, are subject to change by social influences, as well as by the individual's motivation to maintain cognitive consistency when cognitive dissonance occurs—when two attitudes or attitude and behavior conflict. Attitudes and attitude objects are functions of affective and cognitive components. It has been suggested that the inter-structural composition of an associative network can be altered by the activation of a single node. Thus, by activating an affective or emotional node, attitude change may be possible, though affective and cognitive components tend to be intertwined.

Ambivalence is a state of having simultaneous conflicting reactions, beliefs, or feelings towards some object. Stated another way, ambivalence is the experience of having an attitude towards someone or something that contains both positively and negatively valenced components. The term also refers to situations where "mixed feelings" of a more general sort are experienced, or where a person experiences uncertainty or indecisiveness.

The elaboration likelihood model (ELM) of persuasion is a dual process theory describing the change of attitudes. The ELM was developed by Richard E. Petty and John Cacioppo in 1980. The model aims to explain different ways of processing stimuli, why they are used, and their outcomes on attitude change. The ELM proposes two major routes to persuasion: the central route and the peripheral route.

In psychology, reactance is an unpleasant motivational reaction to offers, persons, rules, or regulations that threaten or eliminate specific behavioral freedoms. Reactance occurs when an individual feels that an agent is attempting to limit one's choice of response and/or range of alternatives.

Disconfirmed expectancy is a psychological term for what is commonly known as a failed prophecy. According to the American social psychologist Leon Festinger's theory of cognitive dissonance, disconfirmed expectancies create a state of psychological discomfort because the outcome contradicts expectancy. Upon recognizing the falsification of an expected event an individual will experience the competing cognitions, "I believe [X]," and, "I observed [Y]." The individual must either discard the now disconfirmed belief or justify why it has not actually been disconfirmed. As such, disconfirmed expectancy and the factors surrounding the individual's consequent actions have been studied in various settings.

Selective exposure is a theory within the practice of psychology, often used in media and communication research, that historically refers to individuals' tendency to favorite information which reinforces their pre-existing views while avoiding contradictory information. Selective exposure has also been known and defined as "congeniality bias" or "confirmation bias" in various texts throughout the years.

Inoculation theory is a social psychological/communication theory that explains how an attitude or belief can be made resistant to persuasion or influence, in analogy to how a body gains resistance to disease. The theory uses medical inoculation as its explanatory analogy but instead of applying it to disease, it is used to discuss attitudes. It has applicability to public campaigns targeting misinformation and fake news.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Interpersonal communication</span> Exchange of information among people

Interpersonal communication is an exchange of information between two or more people. It is also an area of research that seeks to understand how humans use verbal and nonverbal cues to accomplish several personal and relational goals. Communication includes utilizing communication skills within one's surroundings, including physical and psychological spaces. It is essential to see the visual/nonverbal and verbal cues regarding the physical spaces. In the psychological spaces, self-awareness and awareness of the emotions, cultures, and things that are not seen are also significant when communicating.

Forced compliance theory is a paradigm that is closely related to cognitive dissonance theory. It emerged in the field of social psychology.

"Closing time effect" refers to the phenomenon whereby people's perception of other people's attractiveness increases as it gets later into the night. The observation was first made by Mickey Gilley in his song, "Don't the Girls All Get Prettier at Closing Time" in 1975. Subsequently, it caught the attention of social psychologists who used scientific testing to gather evidence in support of the idea.

Self-persuasion is used to explain one aspect of social influence. This theory postulates that the receiver takes an active role in persuading himself or herself to change his or her attitude. Unlike the direct technique of Persuasion, Self-persuasion is indirect and entails placing people in situations where they are motivated to persuade themselves to change. More specifically what characterizes a self-persuasion situation is that no direct attempt is made to convince anyone of anything. Thus, with self-persuasion, people are convinced that the motivation for change has come from within, so the persuasion factors of another person's influence is irrelevant. Therefore, Self-persuasion is almost always a more powerful form of persuasion than the more traditional persuasion techniques. Self-Persuasion, also has an important influence in Social judgment theory, Elaboration Likelihood Model, Cognitive Dissonance and Narrative paradigm.

Attitude-behavior consistency is when a person's attitude is consistent with their behavior. This is not true in many cases. The fact that people often express attitudes that are inconsistent with how they act may surprise those unfamiliar with social and behavioral science. However, it is important to understand that facts are often reported as if they are about people's actions when they may only be known to be true about their words. This is because it is often much easier to conduct interviews or surveys than to obtain records of how people behave in real-world situations. Sometimes attitudes, such as voting, are measurably consistent with behavior. In such cases it may be possible to obtain accurate estimates of behavior. However, there is no general method for correcting for attitude-behavior inconsistency.

Functional attitude theory (FAT) suggests that beliefs and attitudes are influential to various psychological functions. Attitudes can be influential on many processes such as being utilitarian (useful), social, relating to values, or a reduction of cognitive dissonance. They can be beneficial and help people interact with the world. In the late 1950s when psychoanalysis and behaviorism reigned supreme as the foci of psychological studies, Smith, Bruner, and White (1956) and Katz (1960) separately and independently developed typologies of human attitudes in relation to the functions to which they believed the attitudes served. This theory proposes that attitudes are held by individuals because they are important and integral to psychological functioning. The function of an attitude is more important than whether the attitude is accurate or correct.

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