British intelligence agencies

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The Government of the United Kingdom maintains several intelligence agencies that deal with secret intelligence. These agencies are responsible for collecting, analysing and exploiting foreign and domestic intelligence, providing military intelligence, and performing espionage and counter-espionage. Their intelligence assessments contribute to the conduct of the foreign relations of the United Kingdom, maintaining the national security of the United Kingdom, military planning, public safety, and law enforcement in the United Kingdom. The four main agencies are the Secret Intelligence Service (SIS or MI6), the Security Service (MI5), the Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ) and Defence Intelligence (DI). The agencies are organised under three government departments, the Foreign Office, the Home Office and the Ministry of Defence.

Contents

The history of the organisations dates back to the 19th century. The decryption of the Zimmermann Telegram in 1917 was described as the most significant intelligence triumph for Britain during World War I, [1] and one of the earliest occasions on which a piece of signals intelligence influenced world events. [2] During the Second World War and afterwards, many observers regarded Ultra signals intelligence as immensely valuable to the Allies of World War II. In 1962, during the Cuban Missile Crisis, GCHQ interceptions of Soviet ship positions were sent directly to the White House. [3] Intelligence cooperation in the post-war period between the United Kingdom and the United States became the cornerstone of Western intelligence gathering and the "Special Relationship" between the United Kingdom and the United States. [4]

UK Intelligence Community

The UK Intelligence Community consists of the following. [5]

Leadership

Administration

The National Security Adviser (NSA) is a senior official in the Cabinet Office, based in Whitehall, who serves as the principal adviser to the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and Cabinet of the United Kingdom on all national security issues. [6]

Oversight

The Intelligence and Security Committee of Parliament oversees the policies, expenditure, administration and operations of the UK Intelligence Community. [5] Complaints are heard by the Investigatory Powers Tribunal. Other oversight is provided by the Investigatory Powers Commissioner and the Independent Reviewer of Terrorism Legislation.

Agencies and other groups

The following agencies, groups and organisations fall under the remit of the Intelligence and Security Committee of Parliament: [5]

Parent departmentAgencyDescription of rolePersonnel
Intelligence and
security agencies		 Foreign Office Secret Intelligence Service (SIS/MI6) [7] Covert overseas collection and analysis of human intelligence3,644 [8]
Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ) [9] Signals intelligence, cryptanalysis and information assurance7,181 [8]
Home Office Security Service (MI5) [10] Counter-intelligence and internal security5,259 [8]
Military intelligence Ministry of Defence Defence Intelligence (DI) [11] All-source military intelligence gathering and analysis4,115 [8]
Other intelligence and security organisations and groups Cabinet Office National Security Secretariat Support the National Security Council and the Joint Intelligence Committee by providing coordination on strategic issues, all-source intelligence analysis, and policy advice to the Prime Minister and other senior ministers. [12] [13]
Joint Intelligence Organisation
Home Office Homeland Security Group Counter terrorism and protecting critical national infrastructure1,061 [8]
Foreign Office and Ministry of Defence National Cyber Force Offensive cyber activity

National centres and authorities

Four national centres and authorities support and complement the work of the agencies:

History

Origins

Organised intelligence collection and planning for the Government of the United Kingdom and the British Empire was established during the 19th century. The War Office, responsible for the administration of the British Army, formed the Intelligence Branch in 1873, which became the Directorate of Military Intelligence. The Admiralty, responsible for command of the Royal Navy, formed the Foreign Intelligence Committee in 1882, [14] which evolved into the Naval Intelligence Department (NID) in 1887. [15]

The Committee of Imperial Defence, established in 1902, was responsible for research, and some co-ordination, on issues of military strategy.

The Secret Service Bureau was founded in 1909 as a joint initiative of the Admiralty and the War Office to control secret intelligence operations in the UK and overseas, particularly concentrating on the activities of the Imperial German government. The Bureau was split into naval and army sections which, over time, specialised in foreign espionage and internal counter-espionage activities respectively. This specialisation, formalised before 1914, was a result of the Admiralty intelligence requirements related to the maritime strength of the Imperial German Navy.

First World War

The Zimmermann Telegram as it was sent from Washington, DC, to Ambassador Heinrich von Eckardt, the German ambassador to Mexico. Zimmermann Telegram as Received by the German Ambassador to Mexico - NARA - 302025.jpg
The Zimmermann Telegram as it was sent from Washington, DC, to Ambassador Heinrich von Eckardt, the German ambassador to Mexico.

In 1916, during the First World War, the two sections underwent administrative changes so that the internal counter-espionage section became the Directorate of Military Intelligence Section 5 (MI5) and the foreign section became the Directorate of Military Intelligence Section 6 (MI6), names by which the Security Service and Secret Intelligence Service are commonly known today.

The Naval Intelligence Division led the Royal Navy's highly successful cryptographic efforts, Room 40 (later known as NID25). The decryption of the Zimmermann Telegram was described as the most significant intelligence triumph for Britain during World War I, [1] and one of the earliest occasions on which a piece of signals intelligence influenced world events. [2]

The Imperial War Cabinet was the British Empire's wartime coordinating body.

Interwar

In 1919, the Cabinet's Secret Service Committee recommended that a peacetime codebreaking agency should be created. [16] Staff were merged from NID25 and MI1b into the new organisation, [17] which was given the cover-name the "Government Code and Cypher School" (GC&CS). [18]

The Joint Intelligence Committee (JIC) was founded in 1936 as a sub-committee of the Committee of Imperial Defence. [19]

Second World War

Following the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939, the JIC became the senior intelligence assessment body for the United Kingdom government. During the War, the RAF Intelligence Branch was established, although personnel had been employed in intelligence duties in the RAF since its formation in 1918. The Special Operations Executive (SOE) was operational from 1940 until early 1946. SOE conducted espionage, sabotage and reconnaissance in occupied Europe and later in occupied Southeast Asia against the Axis powers and aided local resistance movements.

A typical Bletchley Park intercept sheet of an Enigma machine message, after decryption. Bletchley decrypt.jpg
A typical Bletchley Park intercept sheet of an Enigma machine message, after decryption.

The 1943 British–US Communication Intelligence Agreement, BRUSA, connected the signal intercept networks of the GC&CS and the U.S. National Security Agency. [20] The GC&CS was based largely at Bletchley Park. Its staff, including Alan Turing, worked on cryptanalysis of the Enigma (codenamed Ultra) and Lorenz cipher, [21] and also a large number of other enemy systems. Winston Churchill was reported to have told King George VI, when presenting to him Stewart Menzies (head of the Secret Intelligence Service and the person who controlled distribution of Ultra decrypts to the government): "It is thanks to the secret weapon of General Menzies, put into use on all the fronts, that we won the war!" [22] F. W. Winterbotham quoted the western Supreme Allied Commander, Dwight D. Eisenhower, at war's end describing Ultra as having been "decisive" to Allied victory. [23] Sir Harry Hinsley, Bletchley Park veteran and official historian of British Intelligence in World War II, made a similar assessment about Ultra, saying that it shortened the war "by not less than two years and probably by four years"; and that, in the absence of Ultra, it is uncertain how the war would have ended. [24]

Cold War

Declassified GCHQ report of Soviet ship positions, which played a key role in resolving the Cuban Missile Crisis. GCHQ Cuban Missile Crisis Intercept.webp
Declassified GCHQ report of Soviet ship positions, which played a key role in resolving the Cuban Missile Crisis.

The Government Code and Cypher School was renamed the "Government Communications Headquarters" (GCHQ) in 1946. [25] The Joint Intelligence Bureau (JIB) was established the same year. [26] It was structured into a series of divisions: procurement (JIB 1), geographic (JIB 2 and JIB 3), defences, ports and beaches (JIB 4), airfields (JIB 5), key points (JIB 6), oil (JIB 7) and telecommunications (JIB 8). [27]

Wartime signals intelligence cooperation between the United Kingdom and the United States continued in the post-war period. [28] The two countries signed the bilateral UKUSA Agreement in 1948. [29] Later broadened to include Canada, Australia and New Zealand, known as the Five Eyes, as well as cooperation with several "third-party" nations, this became the cornerstone of Western intelligence gathering and the "Special Relationship" between the UK and the USA. [4] Since World War II, the chief of the London station of the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency has attended the Joint Intelligence Committee's weekly meetings. One former US intelligence officer has described this as the "highlight of the job" for the London CIA chief. [30] Resident intelligence chiefs from Australia, Canada, and New Zealand may attend when certain issues are discussed.[ citation needed ]

The Joint Intelligence Committee moved to the Cabinet Office in 1957 with its assessments staff who prepared intelligence assessments for the committee to consider.

During the Cuban Missile Crisis, GCHQ Scarborough intercepted radio communications from Soviet ships reporting their positions and used that to establish where they were heading. A copy of the report was sent directly to the White House Situation Room, providing initial indications of Soviet intentions with regard to the US naval blockade of Cuba. [3]

When the Ministry of Defence was formed in 1964, the Joint Intelligence Bureau, Naval Intelligence, Military Intelligence and Air Intelligence were combined to form the Defence Intelligence Staff (DIS). [31] The DIS focussed initially on Cold War issues. [32]

As well as a mission to gather intelligence, GCHQ has for a long time had a corresponding mission to assist in the protection of the British government's communications. Building on the work of James H. Ellis in the late 1960s, Clifford Cocks invented a public-key cryptography algorithm in 1973 (equivalent to what would become, in 1978, the RSA algorithm), which was shared with the National Security Agency in the United States. [33]

The Security Service Act 1989 established the legal basis of the Security Service (MI5) for the first time under the government led by Margaret Thatcher. GCHQ and the Secret Intelligence Service (MI6) were placed on a statutory footing by the Intelligence Services Act 1994 under the government led by John Major.

21st century

The National Infrastructure Security Coordination Centre (NISCC) and the National Security Advice Centre (NSAC) were formed in 1999. NISCC's role was to provide advice to companies operating critical national infrastructure, [34] and NSAC was a unit within MI5 that provided security advice to other parts of the UK government. The Centre for the Protection of National Infrastructure (CPNI) was formed as a child agency of MI5 in 2007, merging the NISCC and NSAC. [35] CPNI provided integrated (combining information, personnel, and physical) security advice to the businesses and organisations which made up the critical national infrastructure. [36] In 2016, the cybersecurity-related aspects of the CPNI's role were taken over by the newly-formed National Cyber Security Centre (NCSC), a child agency of GCHQ. [37] The CPNI evolved into the National Protective Security Authority (NPSA) in 2023, taking on a remit beyond critical national infrastructure. [38]

The Office for Security and Counter-Terrorism (OCST) was created in 2007 and is responsible for leading work on counter-terrorism working closely with the police and security services. The OSCT was renamed the Homeland Security Group in 2021.

The Defence Intelligence Staff changed its name to Defence Intelligence (DI) in 2009. [32] Defence Intelligence has a unique position within the UK intelligence community as an 'all-source' intelligence function.

The National Security Council (NSC) was established in 2010, reestablishing the central coordination of national security issues seen in the Committee of Imperial Defence. [39] The Joint Intelligence Organisation was formalised to provide intelligence assessment and advice on development of the UK intelligence community's analytical capability for the Joint Intelligence Committee and NSC. [40]

The heads of the Five Eyes domestic security agencies gave a public presentation together for the first time in 2023. [41] The MI6 chief and the CIA director made their first-ever joint remarks in an opinion piece in the Financial Times in 2024. [42] [43]

Budget

Single Intelligence Account

The Single Intelligence Account (SIA) is the funding vehicle for the three main security and intelligence agencies: the Secret Intelligence Service (SIS/MI6), [44] Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ) [45] and the Security Service (MI5). [46] Spending on the SIA was £3.6 billion in financial year 2022/23. [47]

Defence Intelligence

Defence Intelligence is an integral part of the Ministry of Defence (MoD) and is funded within the UK's defence budget.

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">GCHQ</span> British signals intelligence agency

Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ) is an intelligence and security organisation responsible for providing signals intelligence (SIGINT) and information assurance (IA) to the government and armed forces of the United Kingdom. Primarily based at "The Doughnut" in the suburbs of Cheltenham, GCHQ is the responsibility of the country's Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs, but it is not a part of the Foreign Office and its director ranks as a Permanent Secretary.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Joint Intelligence Committee (United Kingdom)</span> British interagency intelligence organisation

The Joint Intelligence Committee (JIC) is an interagency deliberative body of the United Kingdom responsible for intelligence assessment, coordination, and oversight of the Secret Intelligence Service, Security Service, GCHQ, and Defence Intelligence. The JIC is supported by the Joint Intelligence Organisation under the Cabinet Office.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">MI5</span> British domestic intelligence agency

MI5, officially the Security Service, is the United Kingdom's domestic counter-intelligence and security agency and is part of its intelligence machinery alongside the Secret Intelligence Service (MI6), Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ), and Defence Intelligence (DI). MI5 is directed by the Joint Intelligence Committee (JIC), and the service is bound by the Security Service Act 1989. The service is directed to protect British parliamentary democracy and economic interests and to counter terrorism and espionage within the United Kingdom (UK). Within the civil service community, the service is colloquially known as Box, or Box 500, after its official wartime address of PO Box 500; its current address is PO Box 3255, London SW1P 1AE.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Defence Intelligence</span> Intelligence agency of the United Kingdom

Defence Intelligence (DI) is an organisation within the United Kingdom intelligence community which focuses on gathering and analysing military intelligence. It differs from the UK's intelligence agencies in that it is an integral part of a government department – the Ministry of Defence (MoD) – rather than a stand-alone organisation. The organisation employs a mixture of civilian and military staff and is funded within the UK's defence budget. The organisation was formerly known as the Defence Intelligence Staff (DIS), but changed its name in 2009.

A security agency is a governmental organization that conducts intelligence activities for the internal security of a nation. They are the domestic cousins of foreign intelligence agencies, and typically conduct counterintelligence to thwart other countries' foreign intelligence efforts.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">UKUSA Agreement</span> Multilateral signals intelligence treaty signed in 1946

The United Kingdom – United States of America Agreement is a multilateral agreement for cooperation in signals intelligence between Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and the United States. The alliance of intelligence operations is also known as the Five Eyes. In classification markings this is abbreviated as FVEY, with the individual countries being abbreviated as AUS, CAN, NZL, GBR, and USA, respectively.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Thames House</span> Office in London, England

Thames House is an office building in Millbank, London, on the north bank of the River Thames adjacent to Lambeth Bridge. Originally used as offices by Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI), it has served as the headquarters of the United Kingdom's internal Security Service since December 1994. It also served as the London headquarters of the Northern Ireland Office (NIO) until March 2013.

In the United Kingdom, D-Notices, officially known since 2015 as DSMA-Notices, are official requests to news editors not to publish or broadcast items on specified subjects for reasons of national security.

The Committee of Imperial Defence was an important ad hoc part of the Government of the United Kingdom and the British Empire from just after the Second Boer War until the start of the Second World War. It was responsible for research, and some co-ordination, on issues of military strategy.

The Joint Terrorism Analysis Centre (JTAC) is an all-source intelligence organisation closely related to the United Kingdom Security Service which provides advice to the British government and firms within the Critical National Infrastructure on terrorist threats.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Intelligence Services Act 1994</span> United Kingdom legislation

The Intelligence Services Act 1994 is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Five Eyes</span> Intelligence alliance

The Five Eyes (FVEY) is an Anglosphere intelligence alliance comprising Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and the United States. These countries are party to the multilateral UK-USA Agreement, a treaty for joint cooperation in signals intelligence. Informally, "Five Eyes" can refer to the group of intelligence agencies of these countries. The term "Five Eyes" originated as shorthand for a "AUS/CAN/NZ/UK/US Eyes Only" (AUSCANNZUKUS) releasability caveat.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">National Protective Security Authority</span>

The National Protective Security Authority (NPSA) is the national technical authority in the United Kingdom for physical and personnel protective security, maintaining expertise in counter terrorism as well as state threats.

There is a long history of close cooperation between the United States and the United Kingdom intelligence services; see Clandestine HUMINT and Covert Action for World War II and subsequent relationships. There are permanent liaison officers of each country in major intelligence agencies of the other, such as the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and the Secret Intelligence Service ("MI6"), FBI and the Security Service (MI5), and National Security Agency (NSA) and Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ). From 1943 to 2017, the Open Source Enterprise, a division of the CIA, was run out of Caversham Park in Reading, Berkshire. American officials worked closely with their British counterparts to monitor foreign TV and radio broadcasts, as well as online information.

The Director of the Government Communications Headquarters is the highest-ranking official in the Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ), a British intelligence agency that specialises in signals intelligence, information assurance and cryptography. The director is a Permanent Secretary, and appointed by and reports to the Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs.

The Joint Intelligence Organisation is a British intelligence agency responsible for intelligence assessment and development of the UK intelligence community's analytical capability. It is headed by a Permanent Secretary-level civil servant.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">MI6</span> British intelligence agency

The Secret Intelligence Service (SIS), commonly known as MI6, is the foreign intelligence service of the United Kingdom, tasked mainly with the covert overseas collection and analysis of human intelligence on foreign nationals in support of its Five Eyes partners. SIS is one of the British intelligence agencies and the Chief of the Secret Intelligence Service ("C") is directly accountable to the Foreign Secretary.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mass surveillance in the United Kingdom</span>

The use of electronic surveillance by the United Kingdom grew from the development of signal intelligence and pioneering code breaking during World War II. In the post-war period, the Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ) was formed and participated in programmes such as the Five Eyes collaboration of English-speaking nations. This focused on intercepting electronic communications, with substantial increases in surveillance capabilities over time. A series of media reports in 2013 revealed bulk collection and surveillance capabilities, including collection and sharing collaborations between GCHQ and the United States' National Security Agency. These were commonly described by the media and civil liberties groups as mass surveillance. Similar capabilities exist in other countries, including western European countries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">The Doughnut</span> Headquarters of the British GCHQ

The Doughnut is the nickname given to the headquarters of the Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ), a British cryptography and intelligence agency. It is located on a 71 hectares site in Benhall, in the suburbs of Cheltenham, Gloucestershire, in South West England. The Doughnut accommodates 5,500 employees; GCHQ is the largest single employer in Gloucestershire. Built to modernise and consolidate GCHQ's multiple buildings in Cheltenham, the Doughnut was completed in 2003, with GCHQ staff moving in the same year, and fully moved into the building in 2004. It is the largest building constructed for secret intelligence operations outside the United States.

Security Intelligence Far East (SIFE) was a British intelligence organization created in 1946 as the Far Eastern regional headquarters of the Security Service, MI5. It was based in British-controlled Singapore and established by Colonel Cyril Egerton Dixon, a career MI5 officer with a great deal of war time counter intelligence experience in Britain and India. SIFE was also a MI5 controlled organisation, which partially merged its counterintelligence section with the regional headquarters of MI6 in 1950. SIFE controlled a number of MI5 Defence Security Officers in Singapore, Kuala Lumpur, Malaya and across the Far East.

References

Citations

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  2. 1 2 "The telegram that brought America into the First World War". BBC History Magazine. 17 January 2017. Retrieved 17 January 2017.
  3. 1 2 Corera, Gordon (2019-10-21). "Scarborough's Cuban missile crisis role revealed" . Retrieved 2019-10-21.
  4. 1 2 Adam White (29 June 2010). "How a Secret Spy Pact Helped Win the Cold War". Time.
  5. 1 2 3 "Intelligence and Security Committee of Parliament" . Retrieved 2024-09-07.
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  8. 1 2 3 4 5 Intelligence and Security Committee of Parliament "Annual Report 2021–2022"
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  14. ↑ Allen. The Foreign Intelligence Committee. p. 68.
  15. ↑ "Obituary". Obituaries. The Times. No. 34523. London. 13 March 1895. col F, p. 10.
  16. ↑ Johnson, 1997, p. 44
  17. ↑ Johnson, 1997, p. 45 and Kahn, 1991, p. 82
  18. ↑ Macksey, Kenneth (2003). The Searchers: How Radio Interception Changed the Course of Both World Wars. Cassell Military. p. 58. ISBN   978-0-304-36545-6.
  19. ↑ Aldrich, Richard James; Cormac, Rory; Goodman, Michael S. (2014). Spying on the World. p. 10. ISBN   9780748678570.
  20. ↑ "How the British and Americans started listening in". BBC News. 2016-02-08. Retrieved 2023-04-02.
  21. ↑ Gannon, Paul (2006). Colossus: Bletchley Park's Greatest Secret. Atlantic Books. ISBN   978-1-84354-331-2.
  22. ↑ The source for this quote is Gustave Bertrand, Enigma, p. 256, at the end of a short passage asserting the importance of Enigma-derived intelligence for Allied victory.
  23. ↑ Winterbotham 1974, pp. 154, 191.
  24. ↑ Hinsley 1996.
  25. ↑ Smith, Michael (1998). Station X. Channel 4 books. p. 176. ISBN   978-0-330-41929-1.
  26. ↑ Dylan, p. xiii
  27. ↑ Dylan, p. 31
  28. ↑ "How the British and Americans started listening in". BBC. 8 February 2016. Retrieved 24 February 2016.
  29. ↑ "Diary reveals birth of secret UK-US spy pact that grew into Five Eyes". BBC News. 2021-03-05. Retrieved 2023-04-02.
  30. ↑ "Why no questions about the CIA?". New Statesman. September 2003. Archived from the original on 2013-07-06.
  31. ↑ Dylan, p. 184
  32. 1 2 "Defence Intelligence: Roles". Ministry of Defence. 12 December 2012. Retrieved 4 November 2014.
  33. ↑ "British Document Outlines Early Encryption Discovery". archive.nytimes.com. Retrieved 2021-05-12. The set of algorithms, equations and arcane mathematics that make up public key cryptography are a crucial technology for preserving computer privacy in and making commerce possible on the Internet. Some hail its discovery as one of the most important accomplishments of 20th-century mathematics because it allows two people to set up a secure phone call without meeting beforehand. Without it, there would be no privacy in cyberspace.
  34. ↑ "Past Events: Aligning and Sustaining IT Infrastructure for Business Benefit". British Computer Society. 9 June 2005. Archived from the original on 21 May 2011. Retrieved 25 May 2012.
  35. ↑ "Launch of The Centre for the Protection of National Infrastructure (CPNI)". Security Service. 1 February 2007. Archived from the original on 7 May 2012. Retrieved 25 May 2012.
  36. ↑ Margaret Rouse (February 2008). "Centre for the Protection of National Infrastructure (CPNI)". SearchSecurity.co.uk. Archived from the original on 5 May 2012. Retrieved 25 May 2012.
  37. ↑ HM Government (1 November 2016). "National Cyber Security Strategy 2016-2021" (PDF). gov.uk. p. 29. Retrieved 2 November 2016.
  38. ↑ "About NPSA". www.npsa.gov.uk. Retrieved 2023-03-28.
  39. ↑ "The National Security Council". Institute for Government. 4 November 2014. Retrieved 2023-04-02.
  40. ↑ "Joint Intelligence Organisation - GOV.UK". gov.uk. Retrieved 2014-03-07.
  41. ↑ "Five Eyes spy chiefs warn Silicon Valley over Chinese threat". Financial Times. October 18, 2023. Retrieved 2024-10-08.
  42. ↑ "Bill Burns and Richard Moore: Intelligence partnership helps the US and UK stay ahead in an uncertain world". Financial Times. 2024-09-07. Retrieved 2024-09-07.
  43. ↑ "MI6 and CIA warn of 'reckless campaign of sabotage across Europe' being waged by Russia". Sky News. Retrieved 2024-09-07. in their first-ever joint remarks
  44. ↑ SIS: Funding and financial controls Archived 2014-11-10 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved on 2 March 2014.
  45. ↑ GCHQ funding & financial controls Archived 2014-03-02 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved on 2 March 2014.
  46. ↑ "Funding | MI5 - The Security Service (2014)". Archived from the original on 8 April 2014. Retrieved 2 March 2014.
  47. ↑ "Security and Intelligence Agencies Financial Statements 2022-23 (HTML)". GOV.UK. Retrieved 2024-05-05.

Bibliography

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