Canarypox

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Canarypox virus
Virus classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
(unranked): Virus
Realm: Varidnaviria
Kingdom: Bamfordvirae
Phylum: Nucleocytoviricota
Class: Pokkesviricetes
Order: Chitovirales
Family: Poxviridae
Genus: Avipoxvirus
Species:
Canarypox virus
Canary bird (Serinus canaria) with its typical yellow colouration. Canary (Serinus canaria).jpg
Canary bird (Serinus canaria) with its typical yellow colouration.

Canarypox virus (CNPV) is an Avipoxvirus and etiologic agent of canarypox, a disease of wild and captive birds that can cause significant losses. Canarypox can enter human cells, but it cannot survive and multiply in human cells. [1] There is a live viral vaccine available which may have beneficial properties against human cancer when used as a mammalian expression vector. [2] (ATCvet code: QI01KD01 ( WHO )). Furthermore, the Poximune C vaccine does offer direct protection against CNPV in susceptible birds. [3]

Contents

Generally CNPV is considered a disease of songbirds, such as canaries, magpies and nightingales, and is associated with higher mortality rates when compared to other avian pox viruses. [4] In some instances, mortality approaches 100%. [4] Avian pox viruses also cause significant economic losses in domestic poultry and remain a problem in the conservation of endemic bird species inhabiting islands. [5]

The general symptoms of CNPV are similar to those of other species of avian pox viruses and are characterised by pustules and diphtheria or pneumonia-like symptoms. [1]

Classification

Canarypox virus (CNPV) is a member of the Poxviridae family. Canarypox viruses, as with other bird pox viruses, are in the genera of Avipoxvirus. Nine other species are also in the genus Avipoxvirus. These include: Fowlpox virus, Juncopox virus, Mynahpox virus, Psittacinepox virus, Sparrowpox virus, Starlingpox virus, Pigeonpox virus, Turkeypox virus and Quailpox virus. [6]

It has thus far been reported that around 232 bird species (from 23 disparate orders) are affected by avian pox virus. [7]

Structure and replication

CNPV is an enveloped virus. [8] They can be enveloped by double (external enveloped virion- EEV) or single (intracellular mature virion – IMV) membranes. [8] These membranes are acquired from the host cell's endoplasmic reticulum (ER) or cell membrane. [8] CNPV and other poxviruses are characterised by having exceptionally large physical dimensions, approximately 330 nm×280 nm×200 nm. [6]

The genome of CNPV is linear and is composed of dsDNA. [8] The genome size is approximately 365kbp, and in total, 328 genes have been found. [8] The shape of all poxviruses resembles something of a 'rounded brick' and remains determined by the specific envelope around the virus. [9]

The process which further characterises the poxvirus family is that replication occurs in the cytoplasm and utilises a specific virus-made structure for replication, the 'virosome'. [10]

Furthermore, gene expression is divided into three phases: early, intermediate and late. [11] At each stage specific genes and promoters are expressed. [11] The structure and replication of CNPV also characterise other members of the Poxviridae family. [11] The vaccinia virus is commonly used as a prototype and can be consulted for further information.[ citation needed ]

Transmission

The most common form of spread of CNPV is by vectors such as mosquitoes and mites. [12] These transmit the virus from infected birds to non-infected birds. Direct routes of transmission have also been observed, especially in closed environments such as aviaries or farms, where the contact rate of birds is high. [13]

When the virus is transmitted directly, this would usually occur through aerosols, consumption of infected bird tissue or by general contact with the diseased bird. Healthy birds are at increased risk of acquiring the disease through existing wounds or scabs when in close contact with diseased birds. [1]

The typical incubation period for the virus is between 5–10 days. [14]

Symptoms

CNPV symptoms often show two main forms. That is either dry (cutaneous) and/or wet (diphtheritic) symptoms (both forms can occur at the same time). [12]

The dry form is the most frequently observed. At the beginning of the disease, small white/yellow blisters form on the uncovered parts of the skin. As the disease progresses blisters get progressively larger and form nodules where the virus can multiply. When the nodules coalesce and burst, scabs are formed leaving rough, dry and pigmented areas on the skin where the nodules were. [12]

Electron micrograph of an epidermal cell showing Poxvirus infection Diseases of Swine 23-3.png
Electron micrograph of an epidermal cell showing Poxvirus infection

This form of the disease is usually mild and does not cause death. The chances of mortality increase when the dry form occurs together with the wet (diphtheritic) form. The wet form symptoms include an enlarged thymus and obstructed lungs, sinuses and trachea with white areas of necrotic tissue. This results in restricted air intake and the potential for suffocation. It has also been observed that some birds may also experience thickened eyelids, air-sacks and enlarged spleens. [15]

Observations under the microscope have shown that the lesions are characterised by epithelial proliferation and hypertrophy in the viral infected areas. [16] Characteristics of avian pox include the formation of intracytoplasmic inclusion bodies ('Bollinger bodies') which are composed of mononuclear inflammatory cells and have been detected in the thymus, spleen, bone marrow, middle ear and air sac. [16] Similar inclusion bodies which are associated with inflammation have also been seen in the epidermis, feather follicles, sinuses and oral mucosa lining. [16]

Apart from the symptoms mentioned above, more general signs of infection include weight loss, loss of feathers and scaly skin on the head, neck and back. [1] Secondary bacterial infections are common with both forms of the disease, having the potential to cause pneumonia or other bacterial infections at the sites of blistering. [1]

Treatment

Currently there is no treatment available. [14]

Diseased birds should however be admitted to a veterinary practice where suitable care will be provided. Care would normally consist of removing skin from the lesions and washing the infected area(s) with Lugol's iodine solution. Furthermore, swabbing of the mouth and throat areas to remove necrotic tissues is common. [12]

By keeping diseased birds in warmer temperatures and ensuring daily eye rinsing with 1-2% saline solution has also been shown to promote recovery. [12] In some cases, the infected birds are prescribed antibiotics. This will not target the virus but its use is designed to prevent secondary bacterial and fungal infections which are often found in skin lesions. [1]

Medical

Avian prevention

A live attenuated CNPV vaccine has been developed and is the best preventive measure against canarypox for captive grown canary birds and other passerine birds. [3] The brand name 'Poximune® C' by Ceva is a freeze-dried vaccine, administered by the 'wing web' method to healthy, susceptible passerine birds who have reached at least four weeks of age. [3] Booster vaccination is recommended every 6–12 months if the risk of disease remains high. [3] Pox lesion formation around the vaccination area is indicative that the vaccine has been effective. The vaccine should not be administered during egg production or in the 4 weeks prior to this. [3]

In a Hawaiian study Poximune® provided treatment in some birds, with their symptoms lasting only a few weeks, others developed necrosis and some died or had symptoms for two months, and some birds needed another vaccine as the first vaccine did not work. Therefore, a range of symptoms can be observed in a clinical setting, while giving unambiguous results. [17]

Mammalian medicine

CNPV has been used recently as a mammalian expression vector in the vaccine industry. [18] The expression system using CNPV is advantageous because it undergoes what is known as ‘abortive infection’ but at the same time displays the necessary antigens to the hosts immune system. [8]

Although veterinary CNPV recombinant vaccines exist, recent attention has focussed on its use in human medicine with several human vaccines using this expression system undergoing clinical trials. [3] The vaccines typically use the CNPV ALVAC strain, which is highly attenuated. [19] The use of this strain has been involved in the expression of several key pathogen and tumour associated antigens. These include (but are not limited to) those found in rabies virus, hepatitis B and hepatitis C, leukaemia virus, HIV and cancers; such as melanoma and colorectal cancers. [8]

A strain of canarypox virus modified to carry feline interleukin-2 called vCP1338 is used to treat cats with fibrosarcoma. [20]

More information can be found in an review by Weli et al, 2011. [21]

Threats

Canarypox virus remains a constant threat to wild birds. [22] Those most vulnerable are passerine birds, endemic on islands such as Hawaii and the Galapagos. Here they have experienced dramatic losses in bird numbers. [22] Many more have become classified as endangered species due to CNPV. The disease is mainly spread by mosquitoes and mites in these regions, which were introduced during European colonisation. [22] Canarypox, together with avian malaria, are the most devastating diseases for birds on the island of Hawaii and surrounding regions. [22]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cowpox</span> Disease of humans and animals

Cowpox is an infectious disease caused by the cowpox virus (CPXV). It presents with large blisters in the skin, a fever and swollen glands, historically typically following contact with an infected cow, though in the last several decades more often from infected cats. The hands and face are most frequently affected and the spots are generally very painful.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Orf (disease)</span> Human disease

Orf is a farmyard pox, a type of zoonosis. It causes small pustules in the skin of primarily sheep and goats, but can also occur on the hands of humans. A pale halo forms around a red centre. It may persist for several weeks before crusting and then either resolves or leaves a hard lump. There is usually only one lesion, but there may be many, and they are not painful. Sometimes there are swollen lymph glands.

Avian coronavirus is a species of virus from the genus Gammacoronavirus that infects birds; since 2018, all gammacoronaviruses which infect birds have been classified as this single species. The strain of avian coronavirus previously known as infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) is the only coronavirus that infects chickens. It causes avian infectious bronchitis, a highly infectious disease that affects the respiratory tract, gut, kidney and reproductive system. IBV affects the performance of both meat-producing and egg-producing chickens and is responsible for substantial economic loss within the poultry industry. The strain of avian coronavirus previously classified as Turkey coronavirus causes gastrointestinal disease in turkeys.

Marek's disease is a highly contagious viral neoplastic disease in chickens. It is named after József Marek, a Hungarian veterinarian who described it in 1907. Marek's disease is caused by an alphaherpesvirus known as "Marek's disease virus" (MDV) or Gallid alphaherpesvirus 2 (GaHV-2). The disease is characterized by the presence of T cell lymphoma as well as infiltration of nerves and organs by lymphocytes. Viruses related to MDV appear to be benign and can be used as vaccine strains to prevent Marek's disease. For example, the related herpesvirus found in turkeys (HVT), causes no apparent disease in the birds, and continues to be used as a vaccine strain for prevention of Marek's disease.

Canid alphaherpesvirus 1 (CaHV-1), formerly Canine herpesvirus (CHV), is a virus of the family Herpesviridae which most importantly causes a fatal hemorrhagic disease in puppies less than two to three weeks old. It is known to exist in the United States, Canada, Australia, Japan, England and Germany. CHV was first recognized in the mid-1960s from a fatal disease in puppies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Camelpox</span> Disease of camels caused by the Camelpox virus

Camelpox is a disease of camels caused by the camelpox virus (CMPV) of the family Poxviridae, subfamily Chordopoxvirinae, and the genus Orthopoxvirus. It causes skin lesions and a generalized infection. Approximately 25% of young camels that become infected will die from the disease, while infection in older camels is generally more mild. Although rare, the infection may spread to the hands of those that work closely with camels.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sheeppox</span> Infectious disease of sheep caused by the sheeppox virus

Sheeppox is a highly contagious disease of sheep caused by a poxvirus different from the benign orf. This virus is in the family Poxviridae and genus Capripoxvirus. Sheeppox virus (SPV) is the most severe of all the animal pox diseases and can result in some of the most significant economic consequences due to poor wool and leather quality.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lumpy skin disease</span> Viral disease affecting cows

Lumpy skin disease (LSD) is an infectious disease in cattle caused by a virus of the family Poxviridae, also known as Neethling virus. The disease is characterized by fever, enlarged superficial lymph nodes, and multiple nodules on the skin and mucous membranes, including those of the respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts. Infected cattle may also develop edematous swelling in their limbs and exhibit lameness. The virus has important economic implications since affected animals tend to have permanent damage to their skin, lowering the commercial value of their hide. Additionally, the disease often results in chronic debility, reduced milk production, poor growth, infertility, abortion, and sometimes death.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fowlpox</span> Viral disease of poultry

Fowlpox is the worldwide disease of poultry caused by viruses of the family Poxviridae and the genus Avipoxvirus. The viruses causing fowlpox are distinct from one another but antigenically similar, possible hosts including chickens, turkeys, quail, canaries, pigeons, and many other species of birds. There are two forms of the disease. The first is spread by biting insects and wound contamination, and causes lesions on the comb, wattles, and beak. Birds affected by this form usually recover within a few weeks. The second is contracted by inhalation or ingestion of the virus via dust or aerosols, leading to the 'diphtheritic form' of the disease, in which diphtheritic membranes form in the mouth, pharynx, larynx, and sometimes the trachea. The prognosis for this form is poor.

Avipoxvirus is a genus of viruses within the family Poxviridae. Poxviridae is the family of viruses which cause the afflicted organism to have poxes as a symptom. Poxviruses have generally large genomes, and other such examples include smallpox and monkeypox. Members of the genus Avipoxvirus infect specifically birds. Avipoxviruses are unable to complete their replication cycle in non-avian species. Although it is comparably slow-spreading, Avipoxvirus is known to cause symptoms like pustules full of pus lining the skin and diphtheria-like symptoms. These diphtheria-like symptoms might include diphtheric necrotic membranes lining the mouth and the upper respiratory tract. Like other avian viruses, it can be transmitted through vectors mechanically such as through mosquitoes. There is no evidence that this virus can infect humans.

Turkeypox virus is a virus of the family Poxviridae and the genus Avipoxvirus that causes turkeypox. It is one of the most common diseases in the wild turkey population. Turkeypox, like all avipoxviruses, is transmitted either through skin contact or by arthropods acting as mechanical vectors.

Enzo Paoletti was an Italian-American virologist who developed the technology to express foreign antigens in vaccinia and other poxviruses. This advance led to the development of vaccines against multiple disease-causing pathogens.

Avian orthoreovirus, also known as avian reovirus, is an orthoreovirus from the Reoviridae family. Infection causes arthritis and tenosynovitis in poultry. It can also cause respiratory disease.

Pacheco's disease is a highly infectious and acute bird disease caused by a species of herpesvirus, Psittacid alphaherpesvirus 1 (PsHV-1). All psittacine species are susceptible to Pacheco's disease, mainly those in zoological collections and aviaries in any geographic regions. Specifically, Pacheco's disease has a high occurrence rate in Amazon parrots, followed by African grey parrots, parrots, macaws, cockatoos and conures. Due to a very high mortality rate within these susceptible species, concerns are brought to companion bird markets and breeders.

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Capripoxvirus is a genus of viruses in the subfamily Chordopoxvirinae and the family Poxviridae. Capripoxviruses are among the most serious of all animal poxviruses. All CaPV are notifiable diseases to the OIE. Sheep, goat, and cattle serve as natural hosts. These viruses cause negative economic consequences by damaging hides and wool and forcing the establishment of trade restrictions in response to an outbreak. The genus consists of three species: sheeppox virus (SPPV), goatpox virus (GTPV), and lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV). They share no serological relationship with camel pox, horse pox, or avian poxes. Capripoxviruses for sheeppox and goatpox infect only sheep and goat respectively. However, it is probable that North American relatives, the mountain goat and mountain sheep, may be susceptible to the strains but has not been experimentally proven. Lumpy skin disease virus affects primarily cattle, but studies have been shown that giraffes and impala are also susceptible to LSDV. Humans cannot be infected by Capripoxviruses.

<i>Monkeypox virus</i> Species of double-stranded DNA virus

The monkeypox virus, is a species of double-stranded DNA virus that causes mpox disease in humans and other mammals. The monkeypox virus is a zoonotic virus belonging to the orthopoxvirus genus, making it closely related to the variola, cowpox, and vaccinia viruses. MPV is oval-shaped with a lipoprotein outer membrane. The genome is approximately 190 kb.

Pseudocowpox is a disease caused by the Paravaccinia virus or Pseudocowpox virus, a virus of the family Poxviridae and the genus Parapoxvirus. Humans can contract the virus from contact with livestock infected with Bovine papular stomatitis and the disease is common among ranchers, milkers, and veterinarians. Infection in humans will present with fever, fatigue, and lesion on the skin.

Raccoonpox virus (RCN) is a double-stranded DNA virus and a member of the orthopoxviruses in the family Poxviridae and subfamily Chordopoxvirinae which consists of eight genera: Avipoxvirus, Capripoxvirus, Leporipoxvirus, Molluscipoxvirus, Orthopoxvirus, Parapoxvirus, Suipoxvirus and Yatapoxvirus Vertebrates are the natural host of Chordopoxvirinae subfamily viruses. More specifically, raccoons are the natural hosts of RCN. RCN was isolated in 1961 from the upper respiratory tissues of 2 raccoons in a group of 92 observably healthy raccoons trapped close to Aberdeen, Maryland.

Starlingpox virus is a branch of the Avipoxvirus belonging to the Chordopoxvirinae subfamily and the Poxviridae family, impacting various starling songbird species. The starling variant, Starlingpox virus has been linked to another variant, the Mynahpox virus, supporting theorizations that each variation belongs to a subclade, Sturnindaepox virus. Avian pox viruses are widespread, double-stranded, DNA genome viruses that have been found in cutaneous and diphtheritic forms in over 230 bird species.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "Canary Pox Virus". BeautyOfBirds, formerly AvianWeb. Retrieved 22 March 2012.
  2. ↑ Bos, R; van Duikeren, S.; van Hall, T.; Lauwen, M.M.; Parrington, M.; Berinstein, N.L.; McNeil, B.; Melief, C.J.; Verbeek, J.S.; van der Burg, S.H.; Offringa, R. (Nov 1, 2007). "Characterization of antigen-specific immune responses induced by canarypox virus vaccines". Journal of Immunology. 179 (9): 6115–22. doi: 10.4049/jimmunol.179.9.6115 . PMID   17947686.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "Poximune C". Drugs.com. Retrieved 22 March 2012.
  4. 1 2 "VaxQuery Database". Canarypox virus. VaxQuery. Archived from the original on 14 January 2020. Retrieved 22 March 2012.
  5. ↑ Thiel, T; Whiteman, NK; Tirapé, A; Baquero, MI; Cedeño, V; Walsh, T; Uzcátegui, GJ; Parker, PG (April 2005). "Characterization of canarypox-like viruses infecting endemic birds in the Galápagos Islands". Journal of Wildlife Diseases. 41 (2): 342–53. doi:10.7589/0090-3558-41.2.342. PMID   16107669. S2CID   8194562.
  6. 1 2 King, Andrew (2012). Virus Taxonomy: Ninth Report of The International Committee on the Taxonomy of Viruses the International Committee on Taxonomy of. International Union of Microbiological Societies. p. 298.
  7. ↑ Pledger, A (December 2005). "Avian pox virus infection in a mourning dove". The Canadian Veterinary Journal. 46 (12): 1143–5. PMC   1288422 . PMID   16422070.
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Tulman, ER; Afonso, CL; Lu, Z; Zsak, L; Kutish, GF; Rock, DL (January 2004). "The genome of canarypox virus". Journal of Virology. 78 (1): 353–66. doi:10.1128/jvi.78.1.353-366.2004. PMC   303417 . PMID   14671117.
  9. ↑ Hyun, JK; Accurso, C; Hijnen, M; Schult, P; Pettikiriarachchi, A; Mitra, AK; Coulibaly, F (September 2011). "Membrane remodeling by the double-barrel scaffolding protein of poxvirus". PLOS Pathogens. 7 (9): e1002239. doi: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1002239 . PMC   3169552 . PMID   21931553.
  10. ↑ Pacchioni, S; Volonté, L.; Zanotto, C.; Pozzi, E.; De Giuli Morghen, C.; Radaelli, A. (June 2010). "Canarypox and fowlpox viruses as recombinant vaccine vectors: an ultrastructural comparative analysis". Archives of Virology. 155 (6): 915–24. doi: 10.1007/s00705-010-0663-7 . PMID   20379750. S2CID   3094141.
  11. 1 2 3 Willis, KL; Langland, JO; Shisler, JL (Mar 11, 2011). "Viral double-stranded RNAs from vaccinia virus early or intermediate gene transcripts possess PKR activating function, resulting in NF-kappaB activation, when the K1 protein is absent or mutated". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 286 (10): 7765–78. doi: 10.1074/jbc.M110.194704 . PMC   3048664 . PMID   21183678.
  12. 1 2 3 4 5 "Department of Natural Resources". Michigan Government. Retrieved 22 March 2012.
  13. ↑ "The Different Pox Diseases in Birds". PetCareTips. Retrieved 22 March 2012.
  14. 1 2 "Canary Pox". Pet Health & Care. Retrieved 8 July 2020.
  15. ↑ MacLachlan, N. James; Dubovi, Edward J. (2009). Fenner's veterinary virology (4th ed.). Amsterdam: Elsevier Academic Press. pp.  163. ISBN   978-0123751584.
  16. 1 2 3 Shivaprasad, HL; Kim, T; Tripathy, D; Woolcock, PR; Uzal, F (August 2009). "Unusual pathology of canary poxvirus infection associated with high mortality in young and adult breeder canaries (Serinus canaria)". Avian Pathology. 38 (4): 311–6. doi:10.1080/03079450903061643. PMID   19937516.
  17. ↑ hawaii.edu https://hilo.hawaii.edu  › hcsuPDF Efficacy of commercial canarypox vaccine for protecting Hawai'i ...
  18. ↑ Skinner, Mike. "Vaccine Vectors". Imperial College London. Archived from the original on 12 July 2012. Retrieved 22 March 2012.
  19. ↑ Fries, LF; Tartaglia, J; Taylor, J; Kauffman, EK; Meignier, B; Paoletti, E; Plotkin, S (April 1996). "Human safety and immunogenicity of a canarypox-rabies glycoprotein recombinant vaccine: an alternative poxvirus vector system". Vaccine. 14 (5): 428–34. doi: 10.1016/0264-410X(95)00171-V . PMID   8735555.
  20. ↑ "EPAR summary for the public: Oncept IL-2 (Feline interleukin-2 recombinant canary pox virus) [EMA/151380/2013 EMEA/V/C/002562]" (PDF). European Medical Agency. 2013.
  21. ↑ Weli, Simon C; Tryland, Morten (December 2011). "Avipoxviruses: infection biology and their use as vaccine vectors". Virology Journal. 8 (1): 49. doi: 10.1186/1743-422X-8-49 . PMC   3042955 . PMID   21291547.
  22. 1 2 3 4 Parker, PG; Buckles, EL; Farrington, H; Petren, K; Whiteman, NK; Ricklefs, RE; Bollmer, JL; Jiménez-Uzcátegui, G (Jan 13, 2011). "110 years of Avipoxvirus in the Galapagos Islands". PLOS ONE. 6 (1): e15989. Bibcode:2011PLoSO...615989P. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0015989 . PMC   3020966 . PMID   21249151.
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