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Hashish, also known as 'hash', is a drug made by compressing and processing trichomes of the cannabis plant. It is consumed by smoking, typically in a pipe, bong, vaporizer or joint, or sometimes via oral ingestion. Hash has a long history of usage in eastern countries such as Afghanistan, India, Iran, Morocco, and Pakistan. Hash consumption is also popular in Europe, where it is the most common form of cannabis use. In the United States, dried flowers or concentrates are more popular, though hash has seen a rise in popularity following changes in law. Like many recreational drugs, multiple synonyms and alternative names for hash exist, and vary greatly depending on the country and native language.
Madagascar, officially the Republic of Madagascar, and previously known as the Malagasy Republic, is an island country in the Indian Ocean, approximately 400 kilometres off the coast of East Africa. At 592,800 square kilometres (228,900 sq mi) Madagascar is the world's second-largest island country. The nation comprises the island of Madagascar and numerous smaller peripheral islands. Following the prehistoric breakup of the supercontinent Gondwana, Madagascar split from the Indian subcontinent around 88 million years ago, allowing native plants and animals to evolve in relative isolation. Consequently, Madagascar is a biodiversity hotspot; over 90% of its wildlife is found nowhere else on Earth. The island's diverse ecosystems and unique wildlife are threatened by the encroachment of the rapidly growing human population and other environmental threats.
Cannabis, also known as marijuana among other names, is a psychoactive drug from the Cannabis plant used primarily for medical or recreational purposes. The main psychoactive component of cannabis is tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), which is one of the 483 known compounds in the plant, including at least 65 other cannabinoids, including cannabidiol (CBD). Cannabis can be used by smoking, vaporizing, within food, or as an extract.
A gravity bong, also known as a GB, geebie, geeb, bucket bong, jib, pleeb, grav, fono, gate, yoin, vodnik or ghetto bong, is a method of consuming smokable substances such as cannabis. The term describes both a bucket bong and a waterfall bong, since both use air pressure and water to draw smoke. A lung uses similar equipment but instead of water draws the smoke by removing a compacted plastic bag or similar from the chamber.
Malagasy cuisine encompasses the many diverse culinary traditions of the Indian Ocean island of Madagascar. Foods eaten in Madagascar reflect the influence of Southeast Asian, African, Indian, Chinese and European migrants that have settled on the island since it was first populated by seafarers from Borneo between 100 CE and 500 CE. Rice, the cornerstone of the Malagasy diet, was cultivated alongside tubers and other Southeast Asian staples by these earliest settlers. Their diet was supplemented by foraging and hunting wild game, which contributed to the extinction of the island's bird and mammal megafauna. These food sources were later complemented by beef in the form of zebu introduced into Madagascar by East African migrants arriving around 1,000 CE. Trade with Arab and Indian merchants and European transatlantic traders further enriched the island's culinary traditions by introducing a wealth of new fruits, vegetables, and seasonings.
Cannabis in the United Kingdom is illegal for recreational use and is classified as a Class B drug. In 2004, cannabis was made a Class C drug with less severe penalties but it was moved back to Class B in 2009. Medical use of cannabis, when prescribed by a registered specialist doctor, was legalised in November 2018.
Cannabis in California has been legal for medical use since 1996, and for recreational use since late 2016. The state of California has been at the forefront of efforts to liberalize cannabis laws in the United States, beginning in 1972 with the nation's first ballot initiative attempting to legalize cannabis. Although it was unsuccessful, California would later become the first state to legalize medical cannabis with the passage of the Compassionate Use Act of 1996. In November 2016, California voters approved the Adult Use of Marijuana Act to legalize the recreational use of cannabis.
Cannabis in Papua New Guinea is illegal, but the nation is a significant producer and consumer of cannabis. Cannabis is sometimes called spak brus in local parlance.
Cannabis in Morocco has been illegal since the nation's independence in 1956, reaffirmed by a total ban on drugs in 1974, but is partially tolerated in the country. Cannabis has been cultivated in Morocco for centuries and the country is currently among the world's top producers of hashish. As of 2016, Morocco is the world's top supplier of cannabis.
Cannabis in Egypt is illegal, but its use is a part of the common culture in the country for many people. Large-scale smuggling of cannabis is punishable by death, while penalties for possessing even small amounts can also be severe. Despite this, enforcement of the law is lax in many parts of Egypt, where cannabis is often consumed openly in local cafes.
Cannabis in Chile is illegal for all production and public consumption, though private at-home consumption is allowed, but is widely consumed, with the highest per-capita use in Latin America. In 2014 Chile began clinical trials on medical marijuana, and in 2015 a decriminalization bill successfully passed the lower house of the Chilean Congress.
Cannabis in Japan is illegal. The drug was outlawed in 1948 Use and possession are punishable by up to five years' imprisonment and a fine. Cultivation, sale, and transport are punishable by up to 7 to 10 years' imprisonment and a fine.
Cannabis in the Netherlands is illegal, but is decriminalised for personal use. Recreational consumption of the drug is tolerated, and it is available in coffee shops.
Cannabis in Sierra Leone is illegal, but is widely cultivated and consumed in the country, and exported to neighboring countries and to Europe. Cannabis is known locally as diamba.
Cannabis in Grenada is illegal. Cannabis possession is the most common drug offense on the island, and the annual prevalence of cannabis use amongst adults was reported as 10.8% in 2005.
Cannabis in China is illegal. However, hemp grows in China, and historically has been used for fiber, as well as for some ritual purposes within Taoism.
Cannabis in Réunion is illegal, but is grown illicitly and is locally known as zamal. It is used both recreationally and ritually.
The history of cannabis and its usage by humans dates back to at least the third millennium BC in written history, and possibly further back by archaeological evidence. For millennia, the plant has been valued for its use for fiber and rope, as food and medicine, and for its psychoactive properties for religious and recreational use.
Cannabis in Liechtenstein is illegal with severe penalties for the production, sale, and possession of marijuana for medicinal or recreational purposes.
Cannabis in Tajikistan is illegal with severe penalties for the production, sale, and possession of marijuana for medicinal or recreational purposes. Punishments include up to five years in prison for possession and capital punishment or 25-year sentence for sale.
References
- ↑ Deanna Swaney; Robert Willox (1994). Madagascar & Comoros: a travel survival kit. Lonely Planet Publications. ISBN 978-0-86442-196-8.
- ↑ Vera Rubin (1 January 1975). Cannabis and Culture. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 228–. ISBN 978-3-11-081206-0.
- ↑ Charles E.M. Pearce; F. M. Pearce (17 June 2010). Oceanic Migration: Paths, Sequence, Timing and Range of Prehistoric Migration in the Pacific and Indian Oceans. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 77–. ISBN 978-90-481-3826-5.
- 1 2 Gwyn Campbell (3 April 2012). David Griffiths and the Missionary "History of Madagascar". BRILL. pp. 437–. ISBN 90-04-20980-8.
- ↑ Graeme R. Newman (19 October 2010). Crime and Punishment around the World: [Four Volumes]. ABC-CLIO. pp. 124–. ISBN 978-0-313-35134-1.
- ↑ "Legal status of cannabis in Madagascar - Cannaconnection.com". www.cannaconnection.com. Retrieved 2020-12-03.
- ↑ Guy Arnold (2005). The International Drugs Trade. Taylor & Francis. pp. 192–. ISBN 978-1-57958-396-5.
- ↑ Gabriella Harriet Schmelzer; Ameenah Gurib-Fakim (2008). Medicinal Plants. PROTA. pp. 368–. ISBN 978-90-5782-204-9.
