Carbonated water

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Sparkling water showing its carbonation, which may be either natural or artificially introduced Drinking glass 00118.gif
Sparkling water showing its carbonation, which may be either natural or artificially introduced
External audio
Nuvola apps arts.svg "Fizzy Water", Distillations Podcast Episode 217, Science History Institute

Carbonated water [a] is water containing dissolved carbon dioxide gas, either artificially injected under pressure, or occurring due to natural geological processes. Carbonation causes small bubbles to form, giving the water an effervescent quality. Common forms include sparkling natural mineral water, club soda, and commercially produced sparkling water. [1]

Contents

Club soda and sparkling mineral water and some other sparkling waters contain added or dissolved minerals such as potassium bicarbonate, sodium bicarbonate, sodium citrate, or potassium sulfate. These occur naturally in some mineral waters but are also commonly added artificially to manufactured waters to mimic a natural flavor profile and offset the acidity of introducing carbon dioxide gas giving one a fizzy sensation. Various carbonated waters are sold in bottles and cans, with some also produced on demand by commercial carbonation systems in bars and restaurants, or made at home using a carbon dioxide cartridge. [2]

It is thought that the first person to aerate water with carbon dioxide was William Brownrigg in the 1740s. [3] [4] Joseph Priestley invented carbonated water, independently and by accident, in 1767 when he discovered a method of infusing water with carbon dioxide after having suspended a bowl of water above a beer vat at a brewery in Leeds, Yorkshire. [5] He wrote of the "peculiar satisfaction" he found in drinking it, and in 1772 he published a paper entitled Impregnating Water with Fixed Air. [6] [7] Priestley's apparatus, almost identical to that used by Henry Cavendish five years earlier, which featured a bladder between the generator and the absorption tank to regulate the flow of carbon dioxide, was soon joined by a wide range of others. However, it was not until 1781 that companies specialized in producing artificial mineral water were established and began producing carbonated water on a large scale. The first factory was built by Thomas Henry of Manchester, England. Henry replaced the bladder in Priestley's system with large bellows.

While Priestley's discovery ultimately led to the creation of the soft drink industry—which began in 1783 when Johann Jacob Schweppe founded Schweppes to sell bottled soda water [8] —he did not benefit financially from his invention. [5] Priestley received scientific recognition when the Council of the Royal Society "were moved to reward its discoverer with the Copley Medal" at the anniversary meeting of the Royal Society on 30 November 1773. [5] [9]

Composition

Natural and manufactured carbonated waters may contain a small amount of sodium chloride, sodium citrate, sodium bicarbonate, potassium bicarbonate, potassium citrate, potassium sulfate, or disodium phosphate, depending on the product. These occur naturally in mineral waters but are added artificially to commercially produced waters to mimic a natural flavor profile and offset the acidity of introducing carbon dioxide gas (which creates low 5–6 pH carbonic acid solution when dissolved in water). [10] [ failed verification ]

Artesian wells in such places as Mihalkovo in the Bulgarian Rhodope Mountains, Medžitlija in North Macedonia, and most notably in Selters in the German Taunus mountains, produce naturally effervescent mineral waters. [11]

Health effects

By itself, carbonated water appears to have little to no impact on health. [12]

Carbonated water, such as club soda or sparkling water, is defined in US law as a food of minimal nutritional value, even if minerals, vitamins, or artificial sweeteners have been added to it. [13]

Carbonated water does not appear to have an effect on gastroesophageal reflux disease. [14] There is tentative evidence that carbonated water may help with constipation among people who have had a stroke. [15] [ needs update ]

Acid erosion

While carbonated water is somewhat acidic, this acidity can be partially neutralized by saliva. [16] A study found that sparkling mineral water is slightly more erosive to teeth than non-carbonated water but is about 1% as corrosive as soft drinks are. [17]

Chemistry and physical properties

Bonds in carbonic acid are more easily broken at high temperatures resulting in the generation of water and gaseous carbon dioxide. Thus sparkling water at lower temperatures (far right) holds more carbonation than at high (far left). [18]

Carbon dioxide gas dissolved in water creates a small amount of carbonic acid (H2CO3):

H
2O (l) + CO
2 (g) ⇌ H
2CO
3 (aq)

with the concentration of carbonic acid being about 0.17% that of CO2. [19] The acid gives carbonated water a slightly tart flavor. Its pH level of between 5 and 6 [10] [ failed verification ] is approximately in between apple juice and orange juice in acidity, but much less acidic than the acid in the stomach. A normal, healthy human body maintains pH equilibrium via acid–base homeostasis and will not be materially adversely affected by consumption of plain carbonated water. [20] Carbon dioxide in the blood is expelled through the lungs. Alkaline salts, such as sodium bicarbonate, potassium bicarbonate, or potassium citrate, will increase pH.

The amount of a gas that can be dissolved in water is described by Henry's Law. The coefficient depends on the temperature. [19] In the carbonization process, water is chilled, optimally to just above freezing, to maximize the amount of carbon dioxide that can be dissolved in it. Higher gas pressure and lower temperature cause more gas to dissolve in the liquid. When the temperature is raised or the pressure is reduced (as happens when a container of carbonated water is opened), carbon dioxide effervesces, thereby escaping from the solution.

The density of carbonated water is slightly greater than that of pure water. The volume of a quantity of carbonated water can be calculated by taking the volume of the water and adding 0.8 cubic centimetres for each gram of CO2. [21] [22]

History

Joseph Priestley pioneered a method of carbonation in the 18th century. PSM V05 D400 Joseph Priestley.jpg
Joseph Priestley pioneered a method of carbonation in the 18th century.

Many alcoholic drinks, such as beer, champagne, cider, and spritzer, were naturally carbonated through the fermentation process. In 1662 Christopher Merret created 'sparkling wine'. [23] William Brownrigg was apparently the first to produce artificial carbonated water, in the early 1740s, by using carbon dioxide taken from mines. [24] In 1750 the Frenchman Gabriel François Venel also produced artificial carbonated water, though he misunderstood the nature of the gas that caused the carbonation. [25] In 1764, Irish chemist Dr. Macbride infused water with carbon dioxide as part of a series of experiments on fermentation and putrefaction. [26] [27] In 1766 Henry Cavendish devised an aerating apparatus that would inspire Joseph Priestley to carry out his own experiments with regard to carbonated waters. [28] Cavendish was also aware of Brownrigg's observations at this time and published a paper on his own experiments on a nearby source of mineral water at the beginning of January in the next year. [29]

Equipment used by Priestley in his experiments on gases and the carbonation of water Priestley Joseph pneumatic trough.jpg
Equipment used by Priestley in his experiments on gases and the carbonation of water

In 1767 Priestley discovered a method of infusing water with carbon dioxide by pouring water back and forth above a beer vat at a local brewery in Leeds, England. [30] [31] [32] The air blanketing the fermenting beer—called 'fixed air'—was known to kill mice suspended in it. Priestley found water thus treated had a pleasant taste, and he offered it to friends as a cool, refreshing drink. In 1772, Priestley published a paper titled Impregnating Water with Fixed Air in which he describes dripping "oil of vitriol" (sulfuric acid) onto chalk to produce carbon dioxide gas, and encouraging the gas to dissolve into an agitated bowl of water. [6] Priestley referred to his invention of this treated water as being his "happiest" discovery. [31]

"Within a decade, inventors in Britain and in Europe had taken Priestley's basic idea—get some "fixed air," mix it with water, shake—and created contraptions that could make carbonated water more quickly, in greater quantities. One of those inventors was named Johann Jacob Schweppe, who sold bottled soda water and whose business is still around today."

—The Great Soda-Water Shake Up, The Atlantic , October 2014. [33]

Priestley's apparatus, which was very similar to that invented by Henry Cavendish five years earlier, featured a bladder between the generator and the absorption tank to regulate the flow of carbon dioxide, and was soon joined by a wide range of others, but it was not until 1781 that companies specialized in producing artificial mineral water were established and began producing carbonated water on a large scale. The first factory was built by Thomas Henry of Manchester, England. Henry replaced the bladder in Priestley's system with large bellows. [5] J. J. Schweppe developed a process to manufacture bottled carbonated mineral water based on the discovery of Priestley, founding the Schweppes Company in Geneva in 1783. Schweppes regarded Priestley as "the father of our industry". [34] In 1792, Schweppe moved to London to develop the business there. In 1799 Augustine Thwaites founded Thwaites' Soda Water in Dublin. A London Globe article claims that this company was the first to patent and sell "Soda Water" under that name. The article says that in the hot summer of 1777 in London "aerated waters" (that is, carbonated) were selling well but there was as yet no mention of "soda water", though the first effervescent drinks were probably made using "soda powders" containing bicarbonate of soda and tartaric acid. [35] The name soda water arose from the fact that soda (sodium carbonate or bicarbonate) was often added to adjust the taste and pH.[ citation needed ]

Modern carbonated water is made by injecting pressurized carbon dioxide into water. [36] The pressure increases the solubility and allows more carbon dioxide to dissolve than would be possible under standard atmospheric pressure. When the bottle is opened, the pressure is released, allowing gas to exit the solution, forming the characteristic bubbles.

Modern sources of CO2 are from industrial processes, such as burning of fossil fuels like coal and methane at power plants, or steam reforming of methane for hydrogen production.

Etymology

Belfast Evening Post, Belfast, Ireland, August 7, 1786 Belfast Evening Post, August 7, 1786.jpg
Belfast Evening Post, Belfast, Ireland, August 7, 1786

In the United States, plain carbonated water was generally known either as soda water, due to the sodium salts it contained, or seltzer water, deriving from the German town Selters renowned for its mineral springs. [37]

Sodium salts were added to plain water both as flavoring (to mimic famed mineral waters, such as naturally effervescent Selters , Vichy water and Saratoga water) and acidity regulators (to offset the acidic 5-6 pH carbonic acid created when carbon dioxide is dissolved in water). [10]

In the 1950s the term club soda began to be popularized. [38]

Generally, seltzer water has no added sodium salts, while club soda still retains some sodium salts. [38]

Products for carbonating water

Home

Soda siphons

A soda siphon c. 1922 SiphonSeltzerAnchorBWks001.jpg
A soda siphon c. 1922

The soda siphon, or seltzer bottle—a glass or metal pressure vessel with a release valve and spout for dispensing pressurized soda water—was a common sight in bars and in early- to mid-20th-century homes where it became a symbol of middle-class affluence.

The gas pressure in a siphon drives soda water up through a tube inside the siphon when a valve lever at the top is depressed. Commercial soda siphons came pre-charged with water and gas and were returned to the retailer for exchange when empty. A deposit scheme ensured they were not otherwise thrown away.

Home soda siphons can carbonate flatwater through the use of a small disposable steel bulb containing carbon dioxide. The bulb is pressed into the valve assembly at the top of the siphon, the gas injected, then the bulb withdrawn.

Gasogene

Late Victorian seltzogene made by British Syphon Seltzogene.jpg
Late Victorian seltzogene made by British Syphon

The gasogene (or gazogene, or seltzogene) is a late Victorian device for producing carbonated water. It consists of two linked glass globes: the lower contained water or other drink to be made sparkling, the upper a mixture of tartaric acid and sodium bicarbonate that reacts to produce carbon dioxide. The produced gas pushes the liquid in the lower container up a tube and out of the device. The globes are surrounded by a wicker or wire protective mesh, as they have a tendency to explode. [39]

Codd-neck bottles

The Codd-neck bottle is designed to contain a marble which seals in the carbonation. Image-Codd bottle.jpg
The Codd-neck bottle is designed to contain a marble which seals in the carbonation.

In 1872, soft drink maker Hiram Codd of Camberwell, London, designed and patented the Codd-neck bottle, designed specifically for carbonated drinks. The Codd-neck bottle encloses a marble and a rubber washer/gasket in the neck. The bottles were filled upside down, and pressure of the gas in the bottle forced the marble against the washer, sealing in the carbonation. The bottle was pinched into a special shape to provide a chamber into which the marble was pushed to open the bottle. This prevented the marble from blocking the neck as the drink was poured.

Soon after its introduction, the bottle became extremely popular with the soft drink and brewing industries mainly in the UK and the rest of Europe, Asia, and Australasia, though some alcohol drinkers disdained the use of the bottle. R. White's, the biggest soft drinks company in London and south-east England when the bottle was introduced, was among the companies that sold their drinks in Codd's glass bottles. [40] One etymology of the term codswallop originates from beer sold in Codd bottles, though this is generally dismissed as a folk etymology. [41]

The bottles were produced for many decades, but gradually declined in usage. Since children smashed the bottles to retrieve the marbles, vintage bottles are relatively rare and have become collector items, particularly in the UK. Due to the risk of explosion and injuries from fragmented glass pieces, use of this type of bottle is discouraged in most countries, since other methods of sealing pressurized bottles can more easily incorporate release of unsafe pressures. The Codd-neck design is still used for the Japanese soft drink Ramune, and in the Indian drink called Banta.

Soda makers

A typical all-in-one soda maker for home use found in supermarkets. A refillable carbon dioxide canister and a high-pressure bottle are often included. Trinkwasserbesprudler.jpg
A typical all-in-one soda maker for home use found in supermarkets. A refillable carbon dioxide canister and a high-pressure bottle are often included.

Soda makers or soda carbonators are appliances that carbonate water with multiple-use carbon dioxide canisters. A variety of systems are produced by manufacturers and hobbyists. [42] [43] The commercial units may be sold with concentrated syrup for making flavored soft drinks.

One major producer of soda carbonators is SodaStream. Their products were popular during the 1970s and 1980s in the United Kingdom, and are associated with nostalgia for that period and have experienced a comeback in the 2000s. [44] [45]

Commercial

A modern bar soda gun Soda gun.jpg
A modern bar soda gun

The process of dissolving carbon dioxide in water is called carbonation. Commercial soda water in siphons is made by chilling filtered plain water to 8 °C (46 °F) or below, optionally adding a sodium or potassium based alkaline compound such as sodium bicarbonate to neutralize the acid created when pressurizing the water with carbon dioxide (which creates high 8-10 pH carbonic acid-bicarbonate buffer solution when dissolved in water). [46] The gas dissolves in the water, and a top-off fill of carbon dioxide is added to pressurize the siphon to approximately 120 pounds per square inch (830 kPa), some 30 to 40 psi (210–280 kPa) higher than is present in fermenting champagne bottles.[ citation needed ]

In many modern restaurants and bars soda water is manufactured on-site using devices known as carbonators. Carbonators use mechanical pumps to pump water into a pressurized chamber where it is combined with carbon dioxide from pressurized tanks at approximately 100 psi (690 kPa). The pressurized carbonated water then flows either directly to taps or mixing heads where flavoring is added before dispensing.

Uses

Carbonated beverages

Carbonated water is a key ingredient in soft drinks, beverages that typically consist of carbonated water, a sweetener, and a flavoring such as cola, ginger, or citrus.

Plain carbonated water or sparkling mineral water is often consumed as an alternative to soft drinks. Club soda is carbonated water to which compounds such as sodium bicarbonate or potassium sulfate have been added. [47] Many manufacturers produce unsweetened sparkling water products that are lightly flavored by the addition of aromatic ingredients such as essential oils. [48] [49] Carbonated water is often mixed with fruit juice to make sparkling alcoholic and non-alcoholic punches. [50]

Alcoholic beverages

Carbonated water is a diluent mixed with alcoholic beverages where it is used to top-off the drink and provides a degree of 'fizz'.

Adding soda water to "short" drinks such as spirits dilutes them and makes them "long" (not to be confused with long drinks such as those made with vermouth). Carbonated water also works well in short drinks made with whiskey, brandy, and Campari. Soda water may be used to dilute drinks based on cordials such as orange squash. Soda water is a necessary ingredient in many cocktails, such as whiskey and soda or Campari and soda.

Cooking

Carbonated water is increasingly popular in Western cooking as a substitute for plain water in deep-frying batters to provide a lighter texture to doughs similar to tempura . Kevin Ryan, a food scientist at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, says the effervescent bubbles when mixed with dough provide a light tempura-like texture, which gives the illusion of being lower calorie than regular frying batters. The lightness is caused by pockets of carbon dioxide gas being introduced into the batter (a process which natural rising using yeast also creates) and further expanding when cooked. [51]

Stain remover

Since the dissolved gas in carbonated water acts as a temporary surfactant, it has been recommended as a household remedy for removing stains, particularly those of red wine. [52]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Also known as soda water, bubbly water, sparkling water, fizzy water, water with gas, in many places as mineral water, and, especially in the United States, as seltzer or seltzer water.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bicarbonate</span> Polyatomic anion

In inorganic chemistry, bicarbonate is an intermediate form in the deprotonation of carbonic acid. It is a polyatomic anion with the chemical formula HCO−
3.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carbonate</span> Salt or ester of carbonic acid

A carbonate is a salt of carbonic acid,, characterized by the presence of the carbonate ion, a polyatomic ion with the formula CO2−3. The word "carbonate" may also refer to a carbonate ester, an organic compound containing the carbonate groupO=C(−O−)2.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Soft drink</span> Sweetened non-alcoholic drink, often carbonated

A soft drink is any water-based flavored drink, usually but not necessarily carbonated, and typically including added sweetener. Flavors used can be natural or artificial. The sweetener may be a sugar, high-fructose corn syrup, fruit juice, a sugar substitute, or some combination of these. Soft drinks may also contain caffeine, colorings, preservatives and other ingredients.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sodium bicarbonate</span> Chemical compound

Sodium bicarbonate (IUPAC name: sodium hydrogencarbonate), commonly known as baking soda or bicarbonate of soda, is a chemical compound with the formula NaHCO3. It is a salt composed of a sodium cation (Na+) and a bicarbonate anion (HCO3−). Sodium bicarbonate is a white solid that is crystalline but often appears as a fine powder. It has a slightly salty, alkaline taste resembling that of washing soda (sodium carbonate). The natural mineral form is nahcolite, although it is more commonly found as a component of the mineral trona.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ginger ale</span> Soft drink flavoured with ginger

Ginger ale is a carbonated soft drink flavoured with ginger. It is consumed on its own or used as a mixer, often with spirit-based drinks. There are two main types of ginger ale. The golden style is credited to the Irish doctor Thomas Joseph Cantrell. The dry style, a paler drink with a much milder ginger flavour, was created by Canadian John McLaughlin.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mineral water</span> Drinking water from a mineral spring

Mineral water is water from a mineral spring that contains various minerals, such as salts and sulfur compounds. It is usually still, but may be sparkling (carbonated/effervescent).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Club soda</span> Carbonated water

Club soda is a form of carbonated water manufactured in North America, commonly used as a drink mixer. Sodium bicarbonate, potassium sulfate, potassium bicarbonate, potassium citrate, or sodium citrate is artificially added to replicate constituents commonly found in natural mineral waters and offset the acidity of introducing carbon dioxide gas.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Soda fountain</span> Device dispensing carbonated soft drinks

A soda fountain is a device that dispenses carbonated soft drinks, called fountain drinks. They can be found in restaurants, concession stands and other locations such as convenience stores. The machine combines flavored syrup or syrup concentrate and carbon dioxide with chilled and purified water to make soft drinks, either manually, or in a vending machine which is essentially an automated soda fountain that is operated using a soda gun. Today, the syrup often is pumped from a special container called a bag-in-box (BiB).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Effervescence</span> Fizzing or foaming caused by the escape of gas from a solution

Effervescence is the escape of gas from an aqueous solution and the foaming or fizzing that results from that release. The word effervescence is derived from the Latin verb fervere, preceded by the adverb ex. It has the same linguistic root as the word fermentation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pop Rocks</span> Type of candy

Pop Rocks, also known as popping candy, is a type of candy owned by Zeta Espacial S.A. Pop Rocks ingredients include sugar, lactose, and flavoring. It differs from typical hard candy in that pressurized carbon dioxide gas bubbles are embedded inside of the candy, creating a small popping reaction when it dissolves.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Water softening</span> Removing positive ions from hard water

Water softening is the removal of calcium, magnesium, and certain other metal cations in hard water. The resulting soft water requires less soap for the same cleaning effort, as soap is not wasted bonding with calcium ions. Soft water also extends the lifetime of plumbing by reducing or eliminating scale build-up in pipes and fittings. Water softening is usually achieved using lime softening or ion-exchange resins, but is increasingly being accomplished using nanofiltration or reverse osmosis membranes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Beer head</span> Frothy foam on top of beer

Beer head is the frothy foam on top of beer and carbonated beverages which is produced by bubbles of gas, predominantly carbon dioxide, rising to the surface. The elements that produce the head are wort protein, yeast and hop residue. The carbon dioxide that forms the bubbles in the head is produced during fermentation as yeasts break down sugar-rich molecules to produce ethanol and carbon dioxide. The carbonation can occur before or after bottling the beer. If the beer continues fermenting in the bottle, then it naturally carbonates and the head is formed upon opening and pouring the beer. If the beer is pasteurized or filtered then the beer must be force carbonated using pressurized gas.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Soda gun</span>

A soda gun or bar gun is a device used by bars to serve various types of carbonated and non-carbonated drinks. A soda gun has the ability to serve any beverage that is some combination of syrup, water and carbon dioxide. This includes soft drinks, iced tea, carbonated water, and plain water. When served from a soda gun, these are often known as fountain drinks.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gasogene</span>

The gasogene is a late Victorian device for producing carbonated water. It consists of two linked glass globes: the lower contained water or other drink to be made sparkling, the upper a mixture of tartaric acid and sodium bicarbonate that reacts to produce carbon dioxide. The produced gas pushes the liquid in the lower container up a tube and out of the device. The globes are surrounded by a wicker or wire protective mesh, as they have a tendency to explode.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cornelius keg</span>

A Cornelius keg is a stainless steel canister (keg) originally used as containers by the soft drink industry. They can be used to store and dispense carbonated or nitrogenated liquids. Cornelius kegs were originally made by Cornelius, Inc.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Soda siphon</span> Device used to store and dispense carbonated beverages

The soda siphon, also known as the seltzer bottle, siphon seltzer bottle, or just siphon) is a device for storing and dispensing carbonated beverages while maintaining the internal pressure, thereby preventing it from going flat. The carbonated beverage is dispensed using the internal pressure of the bottle, so the setup is not a true siphon in its operation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Selters</span> German brand of natural mineral water

Selters is a German brand of natural mineral water sourced from wells in the area of Selters in Hesse, at the Taunus mountains. The water has been known since the Bronze Age and famous as a natural soda water because of its high concentration of sodium bicarbonate, "soda". The Selters water also contains raised levels of calcium, chloride, magnesium, sulfate and potassium ions. The water is naturally carbonated, over 250 mg/L, but sold in both sparkling and still versions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Johann Jacob Schweppe</span> German-Swiss watchmaker and scientist

Johann Jacob Schweppe was a German watchmaker and amateur scientist who developed the first practical process to manufacture bottled carbonated mineral water and began selling the world's first bottled soft drink, His company, Schweppes, regards Priestley as "the father of our industry".

Carbonated milk or soda milk is a carbonated soft drink. It can be made from powdered milk or fresh milk, and often has added flavor. In addition to modified mouthfeel, carbonated milk also has a longer shelf-life than similarly processed flat milk and a different flavor. It is sold by several companies and is most popular in Asia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Soda machine (home appliance)</span> Home appliance for carbonating tap water

A soda machine or soda maker is a home appliance for carbonating tap water by using carbon dioxide from a pressurized cartridge. The machine is often delivered with flavorings; these can be added to the water after it is carbonated to make soda, such as orange, lemon, or cola flavours. Some brands are able to directly carbonate any cold beverage.

References

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  2. ↑ Jessica Krefting, MS, RD, LDN (September 1, 2018). "Seltzer or Sparkling Water: An Alternative to Flat Water". Journal of Renal Nutrition. 28 (5): E33–E35. doi:10.1053/j.jrn.2018.07.001. S2CID   81383075.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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  25. ↑ Funderburg, Anne Cooper (1995). Chocolate, Strawberry, and Vanilla. Popular Press. ISBN   9780879726928 . Retrieved March 15, 2016.
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  28. ↑ Homan, Peter Gerald. "AERIAL ACID: a short history of artificial mineral waters" (PDF). idus.us.es. Retrieved May 8, 2017.
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  31. 1 2 Stephen T Johnson (2009). The Invention of Air: An experiment, a journey, a new country and the amazing force of scientific discovery. Penguin Books Limited. ISBN   978-1594488528.
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  33. ↑ "The Great Soda-Water Shake Up". The Atlantic. Retrieved October 13, 2021.
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  45. ↑ David Smith (June 18, 2006). "Wham! Big hair and Eighties pop make internet comeback". The Observer . Retrieved September 12, 2006.
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