Cat predation on wildlife

Last updated
Cats kill billions of wild birds each year. This feral cat near Brisbane has caught a Pale-headed rosella. Feral Cat (5573630708).jpg
Cats kill billions of wild birds each year. This feral cat near Brisbane has caught a Pale-headed rosella.

Cat predation on wildlife is the result of the natural instincts and behavior of both feral and owned house cats to hunt small prey, including wildlife. Some people view this as a desirable phenomenon, such as in the case of barn cats and other cats kept for the intended purpose of pest control; but scientific evidence does not support the popular use of cats to control urban rat populations, and ecologists oppose their use for this purpose because of the disproportionate harm they do to native wildlife. As an invasive species [1] and predator, [2] they do considerable ecological damage. [2]

Contents

Due to cats' natural hunting instinct, their ability to adapt to different environments, and the wide range of small animals they prey upon, both feral and free-ranging pet cats are responsible for predation on wildlife, and in some environments, considerable ecological harm. Cats are disease carriers and can spread diseases to animals in their community and marine life. There are methods to help mitigate the environmental impact imposed by feral cats through different forms of population management. Reducing cats' impact on the environment is limited by perceptions society has towards cats because humans have a relationship with cats as pets. [3]

In Australia, hunting by feral cats helped to drive at least 20 native mammals to extinction, [4] and continues to threaten at least 124 more. [4] Their introduction has caused the extinction of at least 33 endemic species on islands throughout the world. [2] A 2013 systematic review in Nature Communications of data from 17 studies found that feral and domestic cats kill billions of birds in the United States every year. [5]

In a global 2023 assessment, cats were found to prey on 2,084 different species, of which 347 (or 16.5%) were of conservation concern. Birds, reptiles, and small mammals accounted for 90% of killed species. Island animals of conservation concern had three times more species predated upon than continental species. [6]

Birds

A feral cat with an American Robin. Plate from Forbush (1916). ... The domestic cat; bird killer, mouser and destroyer of wild life; means of utilizing and controlling it (1916) (20998811541).jpg
A feral cat with an American Robin. Plate from Forbush (1916).

A 2013 study by Scott R. Loss and others of the Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service found that free-ranging domestic cats are likely the top human-caused threat to birds and small mammals in the United States, killing an estimated 1.3 to 3.7 billion birds and 6.3 to 22.3 billion mammals annually, and found that the majority of this mortality caused by un-owned (rather than pet) cats. [5] [7] These figures were much higher than previous estimates for the U.S. [5] Unspecified species of birds native to the U.S. and mammals including mice, shrews, voles, squirrels and rabbits were considered most likely to be preyed upon by cats. [5] : 4  Perhaps the first U.S. study that pointed to predation by cats on wildlife, as a concern was ornithologist Edward Howe Forbush's 1916 report for the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture, The Domestic Cat: Bird Killer, Mouser and Destroyer of Wildlife: Means of Utilizing and Controlling It. [8]

Island settings pose particular challenges for wildlife. A 2001 study identified cats alone as responsible for the plight of some island bird species, such as the Townsend's shearwater, socorro dove, and the Marquesan ground dove. [9] : 400  The same study identified the greatest cause of endangerment of birds as habitat loss and degradation, with at least 52% of endangered birds affected, [9] : 399  while introduced species on islands, such as domestic cats, rats and mustelids, [9] : 403  affected only 6% of endangered birds. [9] : 399  Other studies caution that removing domestic cats from islands can have unintended consequences, as increasing rat populations can put native bird [10] and mammal species [11] [12] at risk.

Impact on island ecosystems

Consequences of introduction

Lyall's wren became extinct within two years of the introduction of cats to Stephens Island. Xenicus lyalli.jpg
Lyall's wren became extinct within two years of the introduction of cats to Stephens Island.

Many islands host ecologically naive animal species. That is, animals that do not have predator responses for dealing with predators such as cats. [13] Pet cats introduced to such islands have had a devastating impact on these islands' biodiversity. [14]

They have been implicated in the extinction of several species and local extinctions, such as the hutias from the Caribbean, the Guadalupe storm petrel from the Pacific coast of Mexico, and the Lyall's wren from New Zealand. In a statistical study, they were a significant cause for the extinction of 40% of the species studied. [14] Moors and Atkinson wrote, in 1984, "no other alien predator has had such a universally damaging effect". [13]

Cats, along with rabbits, some sea birds, and sheep, form the entire large animal population of the remote Kerguelen Islands in the southern Indian Ocean. Although exotic mammals form the bulk of their diet, cats' impact on seabirds is very important. [15]

Restoration

Because of the damage cats cause in islands and some ecosystems, many conservationists working in the field of island restoration have worked to remove feral cats. (Island restoration involves the removal of introduced species and reintroducing native species.) As of 2004, 48 islands have had their feral cat populations eradicated, including New Zealand's network of offshore island bird reserves [16] and Australia's Macquarie Island.

Larger projects have also been undertaken, including their complete removal from Ascension Island. The cats, introduced in the 19th century, caused a collapse in populations of nesting seabirds. The project to remove them from the island began in 2002, and the island was cleared of cats by 2004. Since then, seven species of seabird that had not nested on the island for 100 years have returned. [17] [ unreliable source? ]

In some cases, the removal of cats had unintended consequences. An example is Macquarie Island, where the removal of cats caused an explosion in the number of rabbits, that started feeding off the island's vegetation, thus leaving the birds without protection from other predators, like rats and other birds. [18] [19] [20] even if the eradication was positioned within an integrated pest management framework. [21] [ unreliable source? ] The removal of the rats and rabbits was scheduled for 2007 and it could take up to seven years and cost $24 million. [22]

Impact by location

Australia

Cats in Australia have been found to have European origins. [23] This is important to note because of their effect on native species. Feral cats in Australia have been linked to the decline and extinction of various native animals. They have been shown to cause a significant impact on ground nesting birds and small native mammals. [24]

Feral cats have also hampered any attempts to re-introduce threatened species back into areas where they have become extinct as the cats have hunted and killed the newly released animals. [25] Numerous Australian environmentalists claim the feral cat has been an ecological disaster in Australia, inhabiting most ecosystems except dense rainforest, and being implicated in the extinction of several marsupial and placental mammal species. [26] Some inhabitants have begun eating cat meat to mitigate the harm that wild cats do to the local wildlife. [27]

In 2020, it was reported that a culling of feral cats that had recently begun in Dryandra Woodland, in Western Australia, had caused the population of numbats to triple in number, the largest number of the endangered marsupial to have been recorded there since the 1990s. [28]

Feral and pet cats in Australia are estimated to kill around 650 million lizards and snakes per year, or about 225 reptiles per cat on average. Cats were found to be actively hunting and killing over 250 different species of reptiles in Australia, with 11 of which being considered endangered species. Cats consume so many lizards in Australia that there was a single cat found with the parts of 40 individual lizards inside of its stomach, the highest amount recorded thus far. [29]

Canada

A 2013 study estimated that between 100 and 350 million birds are killed annually by pet cats in Canada. [30]

China

Domestic cats are common throughout China, and the number of pet cats in the country increased at a rate of 8.6% from 2018 to 2019. A 2021 estimate based on a public survey estimated that outdoor cats kill "1.61–4.95 billion invertebrates, 1.61–3.58 billion fishes, 1.13–3.82 billion amphibians, 1.48–4.31 billion reptiles, 2.69–5.52 billion birds, and 3.61–9.80 billion mammals" there each year. [31] The authors recommended policies be implemented, such as a public education initiative to encourage people to keep their cats indoors, and building more animal shelters. They also recommended that TNR programs "should be limited until rigorous, peer-reviewed studies are able to show that such efforts consistently attain the sterilization rates needed to result in stabilization and permanent decline of unowned cat populations", as they said that most TNR programs fail to do this. [31]

New Zealand

The fauna of New Zealand has evolved in isolation for millions of years without the presence of mammals (apart from a few bat species). Consequently, birds dominated the niches occupied by mammals and many became flightless. The introduction of mammals after settlement by Māori from about the 12th century had a huge effect on indigenous biodiversity. European explorers and settlers brought cats on their ships and the presence of feral cats was recorded from the latter decades of the 19th century. [32] It is estimated that feral cats have been responsible for the extinction of six endemic bird species and over 70 localised subspecies as well as depleting bird and lizard species. [33] [34]

South Africa

In a 2020 study, approximately 300,000 domestic cats in Cape Town kill 27.5 million animals a year; this equates to a cat killing 90 animals per year. Cats on the urban edge of the city of Cape Town kill more than 200,000 animals in the Table Mountain National Park annually. Reptiles constituted 50% of killed prey, but only 17% of prey brought home; mammals constituted 24% of prey, but 54% of prey brought home. Non-native species accounted for only 6% of animals killed by cats from the urban edge, and 17% from deep urban cats. [35]

United Kingdom

Sir David Attenborough in his Christmas Day, 2013, edition of BBC Radio 4 programme Tweet Of The Day said "cats kill an extraordinarily high number of birds in British gardens". [36] Asked whether cat owners should buy bell collars for their pets at Christmas, he replied: "that would be good for the robins, yes". [36] In the UK, the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds says there is no scientific evidence that predation by cats is having any effect on the population of birds UK-wide. [37] Nick Forde, a trustee of the UK charity SongBird Survival, said the RSPB's claim of no evidence was disingenuous because adequate studies had not been done. [38]

In the UK, it is common to allow pet cats access to the outdoors. [39] SongBird Survival considers that "the prevailing line that 'there is no scientific evidence that predation by cats is having any impact on bird populations in UK' is simply no longer tenable", [40] and that "no study has ever examined the impact of cats on songbirds at the population level; evidence shows that the recovering sparrowhawk population in the 1970-80s resulted in the decline of some songbird populations; cats kill around 3 times as many songbirds as sparrowhawks; the mere presence of cats near birds' nests was found to decrease provision of food by a third while the resultant mobbing clamour from parent birds led in turn to increased nest predation by crows and magpies; [and that] it is therefore far more likely that cats have an even greater impact on songbird populations than sparrowhawks". [40]

United States

The United States is estimated to house a population of 60-80 million cats, [41] and they are estimated to kill 2.4 billion birds per year, making them the leading human-caused threat to the survival of bird species in the country. [42] The majority of these kills are by feral cats, rather than owned cats. [5]

In California, a study found that in areas where humans feed feral cats, they will continue to hunt large numbers of native birds even without the intention of eating them. This has resulted in the disappearance of native bird species, such as the California Quail (Callipepla california) and California Thrasher (Toxostoma redivivum), in those areas where they once resided.

In Maryland, a study showed that due to cats overhunting chipmunks, the natural prey of many raptor species, the Cooper's Hawk (Accipiter cooperii) population struggled to find food and had to switch to preying on harder-to-catch songbirds, which lengthened their hunting times and increased their nestlings mortality rate. [43]

In Hawaii, cats were introduced by European sailing ships that used them for pest control. They prey on songbirds and many other birds that nest on the ground and in burrows. Nestlings unable to fly are especially vulnerable. Cats successfully hunt in a variety of habitats. A study was made in endangered birds' habitats with an infrared camera to learn how much cats affected the population of birds. The study found that up to 11% of palila nests were depredated yearly. The critically endangered palila produces few eggs per year and the nestlings develop slowly, so that depredation rate could result in extinction. [44]

In New York City, cats are commonly brought into businesses to combat the city's rat problem. Studies done in New York City determined that cats are not effective predators against rats and much more of a threat to other urban wildlife. [45]

Mice and rats

Mouse partially eaten by a house cat Mouse, partially eaten by a house cat (DSC01120).jpg
Mouse partially eaten by a house cat

Cats are sometimes intentionally released into urban environments on the popular assumption that they will control the rat population; but there is little scientific basis for this. The reality is that cats find rats to be large and formidable prey, and so they preferentially hunt defenseless wildlife such as lizards and songbirds instead. Scientists and conservationists oppose the use of cats as a form of rodent control because they are so inefficient at destroying pest species that the harm they do to native species in the process outweighs any benefit. [46] [47] [48]

Despite this, cat rescue groups sometimes release unadoptable feral cats into rat-infested neighborhoods under the pretext of giving the cats "jobs" as rat control, as is being done in Chicago and Brooklyn; the cats will largely ignore the rats and instead will beg for food from people or eat garbage and whatever small wildlife they can catch. Jamie Childs, a public health researcher who has studied urban feral cats, told The Atlantic that he sees cats and rats peaceably eating from the same pile of garbage at the same time. [49] [50]

Ecology of fear

Ecology of fear or "fear effect": is a negative impact on prey that leads to a decrease in their population due to predators' presence or scent. The study "Urban bird declines and the fear of cats" refers to how native species are reproducing less to avoid predators, even if predator mortality is low. This study indicates how small predator mortality is, which is less than 1%, but it has a considerable impact on the birds' fecundity and reduces the abundance of birds to 95%. [51] The fear effect is one indirect way cats affect native species besides diseases. The presence of cats altered the prey foraging, movement, and stress response and significantly impacted survival and reproduction. [52]

Cat attack outcomes

Wildlife that are attacked by cats fare poorly, even when provided with veterinary treatment by licensed wildlife rehabilitators (over 70% of mammals and over 80% of birds died in spite of treatment in one study). [53] : p. 171  Even those that had no visible injuries from the cat attack often died (55.8% of birds, 33.9% of mammals). [53] : p. 169  Typical wildlife injuries caused by cats include cuts, degloving (the stripping off of skin), and small puncture wounds caused by prey being gripped by the cat's teeth that are easily hidden by fur or feathers. [53] : p. 171  Systemic infection, usually caused by Pasteurella multocida , a highly pathogenic bacterial species that's found naturally in cat mouths, can kill small animals in as little as 15 hours. [53] : p. 171  Few other causes of injury that are commonly seen by wildlife care facilities lead to death as rapidly [53] : p. 171  or as frequently as interaction with a cat. [53] : p. 170 

Cat owner attitudes

According to a study published by People and Nature in 2018, predation by pet cats is an environmental issue that cannot be resolved until cat owners accept that the problem exists and individually take responsibility for addressing it. [54] Surveys of cat owners find they often view the depredation of wildlife as a normal thing that cats do, and rarely feel an individual obligation to prevent it. [54] They may experience some level of cognitive dissonance toward the subject, because when surveyed they're more likely than the general public to believe that cat predation isn't harmful to wildlife, despite the likelihood they have witnessed acts of predation firsthand, and in many cases have been receiving "gifts" of animal carcasses from their cats. [55] Those that express concern also often express a belief that, despite owning the animal, they have no control over what it does, or believe that they can't manage its behavior without compromising the cat's welfare in some way. [54] A few cat owners even take pride in the animals their cats return home, believing it represents the cat's authenticity or skill. [54]

Human interaction

Ancient Egyptian cat statuette intended to contain a mummified cat 332-30 B.C. Cat Statuette intended to contain a mummified cat MET DP245141.jpg
Ancient Egyptian cat statuette intended to contain a mummified cat 332–30 B.C.

The relationship between cats and humans began as a commensal relationship due to their predation on rodents, dating back to 7500 B.C. in connection to the inception of commensal rodents near Neolithic sedentary communities. There is some debate regarding exactly how early domestication began, but there is enough evidence (DNA and Art) to conclude that humans started domesticating cats in Ancient Egypt. Ancient Egyptians found cats to be beneficial for pest reduction. Human influence on cat evolution can be seen morphologically after the domestication of the cat and the increase of global trade routes, as cats were recruited for rodent control. [56] [57]

Unlike other wild predators, cats are given different forms of aid from humans such as food, shelter, and medical treatment. Aid given by humans present cats with a survival advantage which would not be seen otherwise in the wild, leading to high populations [58] As opportunistic hunters, cats are extremely adaptive to their environments, even if they are a house cat living in a home.

Spreading diseases

A secondary effect of cat predation on wildlife is the ability to transmit a range of diseases to animals. Cats can spread diseases to animals they interact with and to marine animals. This includes transmission of diseases to humans. In recent years tick populations have increased in size and geographic distribution due to climate change, habitat fragmentation, and host availability. In North America, cats are common tick hosts. Diseases capable of being transmitted through ticks include Theileria Orientalis, and R. rickettsii, hemorrhagic fever. [59] Some of the diseases that can be transmitted from cats to humans include Toxoplasmosis, Hookworms (Uncinaria stenocephala, Ancyclostoma tubaeforme, A. brazilense and A. ceylanicum), Cat-scratch disease (bartonellosis), Rickettsia disease (Rickettesia typhi), Tularemia (Francisella tularensis), and Plague (Yersinia pestis). [60]

Toxoplasmosis

Toxoplasma Lifecycle Toxoplasma LifeCycle CDC.gif
Toxoplasma Lifecycle

Toxoplasmosis is caused by the single-celled parasite Toxoplasma gondii, which usually occurs in warm-blooded animals. Still, cats usually are the carriers, [61] which is very dangerous for many birds in Hawaii. Species toxoplasmosis has been found to be fatal are: the Hawaiian crow, the nene, the red-footed booby, and the Hawaiian monk seal, many of which are endangered . Toxoplasmosis found in marine life is attributed to freshwater runoff from cities. [62] Toxoplasmosis can be transmitted from cats to marine organisms, in some instances it is fatal to Hawaiian marine animals. [44] Toxoplasmosis transmitted from cats have been reported in mammalian, avian, marine, marsupial, sheep, and goat species. [60]

Feral cat population management

Sterilized cat with a tipped ear Cat with Tipped Ear.jpg
Sterilized cat with a tipped ear

Various methods of population control are used to reduce the number of feral cats in areas where they are too abundant, thereby reducing the adverse effects that they often have on wildlife in those areas. Some of the methods most used, particularly in urban areas, are "Trap-Neuter-Return" (TNR) and "Trap-Euthanize" programs, as well as neutering kittens and allowing them to be adopted. Scientific research has not found TNR to be an effective means of controlling the feral cat population. [63] Literature reviews have found that when studies documented TNR colonies that declined in population, those declines were being driven primarily by substantial percentages of colony cats being permanently removed by a combination of rehoming and euthanasia on an ongoing basis, as well as by an unusually high rate of death and disappearance. [63] [64] TNR colonies often increase in population because cats breed quickly and the trapping and sterilization rates are frequently too low to stop this population growth, because food is usually being provided to the cats, and because public awareness of a TNR colony tends to encourage people in the surrounding community to dump their own unwanted pet cats there. [63] The growing popularity of TNR, even near areas of particular ecological sensitivity, has been attributed in part to a lack of public interest regarding the environmental harm caused by feral cats, and the unwillingness of both scientific communities and TNR advocates to engage. [65]

Because hunting behavior in cats is driven by instinct and not by hunger, feeding cats (as in TNR colonies) does nothing to stop them from hunting, even if the cats are overfed. Feeding cats can allow a state of hyperpredation to come about, where human intervention causes an unnaturally high predator population density to continue indefinitely, even if the local prey populations collapse. [66]

Housecats are common in western societies which has an effect on how society views the moral implication of feral cat population management. A study was done in rural and urban England, to determine the perspective of cat owners on managing cat predation of local wildlife. The majority of cat owners agreed that cats should not remain inside to prevent them from hunting. Many cat owners were more concerned about an individual cat's safety then their predation on other animals. [3]

Cat-exclusion zones (CEZ) have been proposed in conservation areas where certain species are vulnerable to predation by cats. These zones are intended for Rural–urban fringe areas serving as a buffer zone to mitigate cat predation from urban cats in rural areas. Cat-exclusion zones were presented in response to the lack of success from existing forms of population management. [67] There is probable controversy associated with this policy as it can be perceived as restricting one's freedom, [68] due to the relationship between humans and cats.

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cat</span> Small domesticated carnivorous mammal

The cat, commonly referred to as the domestic cat or house cat, is a small domesticated carnivorous mammal. It is the only domesticed species in the family Felidae. Recent advances in archaeology and genetics have shown that the domestication of the cat occurred in the Near East around 7500 BC. It is commonly kept as a house pet and farm cat, but also ranges freely as a feral cat avoiding human contact. It is valued by humans for companionship and its ability to kill vermin. Its retractable claws are adapted to killing small prey like mice and rats. It has a strong, flexible body, quick reflexes, sharp teeth, and its night vision and sense of smell are well developed. It is a social species, but a solitary hunter and a crepuscular predator. Cat communication includes vocalizations like meowing, purring, trilling, hissing, growling, and grunting as well as cat body language. It can hear sounds too faint or too high in frequency for human ears, such as those made by small mammals. It also secretes and perceives pheromones.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Predation</span> Biological interaction where a predator kills and eats a prey organism

Predation is a biological interaction where one organism, the predator, kills and eats another organism, its prey. It is one of a family of common feeding behaviours that includes parasitism and micropredation and parasitoidism. It is distinct from scavenging on dead prey, though many predators also scavenge; it overlaps with herbivory, as seed predators and destructive frugivores are predators.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dingo</span> Canid species native to Australia

The dingo is an ancient (basal) lineage of dog found in Australia. Its taxonomic classification is debated as indicated by the variety of scientific names presently applied in different publications. It is variously considered a form of domestic dog not warranting recognition as a subspecies, a subspecies of dog or wolf, or a full species in its own right.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nocturnality</span> Behavior characterized by activity during the night and sleeping during the day

Nocturnality is a behavior in some non-human animals characterized by being active during the night and sleeping during the day. The common adjective is "nocturnal", versus diurnal meaning the opposite.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cougar</span> Large species of cat native to the Americas

The cougar, also known as the panther, mountain lion, catamount and puma, is a large cat native to the Americas. It inhabits North, Central and South America, making it the most widely distributed wild, terrestrial mammal in the Western Hemisphere, and one of the most widespread in the world. Its range spans the Canadian Territory of Yukon, British Columbia and Alberta provinces, the Rocky Mountains and areas in the Western United States. Further south, its range extends through Mexico to the Amazon Rainforest and the southern Andes Mountains in Patagonia. It is an adaptable, generalist species, occurring in most American habitat types. It prefers habitats with dense underbrush and rocky areas for stalking but also lives in open areas.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hawaiian crow</span> Species of bird in the crow family

The Hawaiian crow or ʻalalā is a species of bird in the crow family, Corvidae, that is currently extinct in the wild, though reintroduction programs are underway. It is about the size of the carrion crow at 48–50 cm (19–20 in) in length, but with more rounded wings and a much thicker bill. It has soft, brownish-black plumage and long, bristly throat feathers; the feet, legs, and bill are black. Today, the Hawaiian crow is considered the most endangered of the family Corvidae. They are recorded to have lived up to 18 years in the wild, and 28 years in captivity. Some Native Hawaiians consider the Hawaiian crow an ʻaumakua.

Feral pigeons, also called city doves, city pigeons, or street pigeons, are descendants of domestic pigeons that have returned to the wild. The domestic pigeon was originally bred from the wild rock dove, which naturally inhabits sea-cliffs and mountains. Rock, domestic, and feral pigeons are all the same species and will readily interbreed. Feral pigeons find the ledges of buildings to be a substitute for sea cliffs, have become adapted to urban life, and are abundant in towns and cities throughout much of the world.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Feral</span> Wild-living but normally domestic animal or plant

A feral animal or plant is one that lives in the wild but is descended from domesticated individuals. As with an introduced species, the introduction of feral animals or plants to non-native regions may disrupt ecosystems and has, in some cases, contributed to extinction of indigenous species. The removal of feral species is a major focus of island restoration.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Trap–neuter–return</span> Strategy for controlling feral animal populations

Trap–neuter–return (TNR), also known as trap–neuter–release, is a controversial method that attempts to manage populations of feral cats. The process involves live-trapping the cats, having them neutered, ear-tipped for identification, and, if possible, vaccinated, then releasing them back into the outdoors. If the location is deemed unsafe or otherwise inappropriate, the cats may be relocated to other appropriate areas. Ideally, friendly adults and kittens young enough to be easily socialized are retained and placed for adoption. Feral cats cannot be socialized, shun most human interaction and do not fare well in confinement, so they are not retained. Cats suffering from severe medical problems such as terminal, contagious, or untreatable illnesses or injuries are often euthanized.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Feral cat</span> Unowned or untamed domestic cat in the outdoors

A feral cat or a stray cat is an unowned domestic cat that lives outdoors and avoids human contact; it does not allow itself to be handled or touched, and usually remains hidden from humans. Feral cats may breed over dozens of generations and become an aggressive local apex predator in urban, savannah and bushland environments. Some feral cats may become more comfortable with people who regularly feed them, but even with long-term attempts at socialization, they usually remain aloof and are most active after dusk. Of the 700 million cats in the world, an estimated 480 million are feral.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Island restoration</span>

The ecological restoration of islands, or island restoration, is the application of the principles of ecological restoration to islands and island groups. Islands, due to their isolation, are home to many of the world's endemic species, as well as important breeding grounds for seabirds and some marine mammals. Their ecosystems are also very vulnerable to human disturbance and particularly to introduced species, due to their small size. Island groups, such as New Zealand and Hawaii, have undergone substantial extinctions and losses of habitat. Since the 1950s several organisations and government agencies around the world have worked to restore islands to their original states; New Zealand has used them to hold natural populations of species that would otherwise be unable to survive in the wild. The principal components of island restoration are the removal of introduced species and the reintroduction of native species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Western Shield</span> Nature conservation program

Western Shield, managed by Western Australia's Department of Parks and Wildlife, is a nature conservation program safeguarding Western Australia's animals and protecting them from extinction. The program was set up in 1996 and as of 2009 was the largest and most successful wildlife conservation program ever undertaken in Australia.

The Crocodile Lake National Wildlife Refuge is part of the United States National Wildlife Refuge System, located in north Key Largo, less than 40 miles (64 km) south of Miami off SR 905. The 6,686 acre (27.1 km2) refuge opened during the year of 1980, under the Land and Water Conservation Fund Act of 1965 and the Endangered Species Act of 1973. It was established in order to protect critical breeding and nesting habitat for the threatened American crocodile and other wildlife. This area also includes 650 acres (2.6 km2) of open water in and around the refuge. In addition to being one of only three breeding populations of the American crocodile, the refuge is home to tropical hardwood hammock, mangrove forest, and salt marsh. It is administered as part of the National Key Deer Refuge which is also located in the Florida Keys.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Malagasy giant rat</span> Species of rodent

The Malagasy giant rat, also known as the votsotsa or votsovotsa, is a nesomyid rodent found only in the Menabe region of Madagascar. It is an endangered species due to habitat loss, slow reproduction, and limited range Pairs are monogamous and females bear only one or two young per year. It is the only extant species in the genus Hypogeomys; another species, Hypogeomys australis, is known from subfossil remains a few thousand years old.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Free-ranging dog</span> Dog not confined to a yard or house

A free-ranging dog is a dog that is not confined to a yard or house. Free-ranging dogs include street dogs, village dogs, stray dogs, feral dogs, etc., and may be owned or unowned. The global dog population is estimated to be 900 million, of which around 20% are regarded as owned pets and therefore restrained.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Introduced mammals on seabird breeding islands</span>

Seabirds include some of the most threatened taxa anywhere in the world. For example, of extant albatross species, 82% are listed as threatened, endangered, or critically endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. The two leading threats to seabirds are accidental bycatch by commercial fishing operations and introduced mammals on their breeding islands. Mammals are typically brought to remote islands by humans either accidentally as stowaways on ships, or deliberately for hunting, ranching, or biological control of previously introduced species. Introduced mammals have a multitude of negative effects on seabirds including direct and indirect effects. Direct effects include predation and disruption of breeding activities, and indirect effects include habitat transformation due to overgrazing and major shifts in nutrient cycling due to a halting of nutrient subsidies from seabird excrement. There are other invasive species on islands that wreak havoc on native bird populations, but mammals are by far the most commonly introduced species to islands and the most detrimental to breeding seabirds. Despite efforts to remove introduced mammals from these remote islands, invasive mammals are still present on roughly 80% of islands worldwide.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cats in New Zealand</span> Overview of the role and status of cats in New Zealand

Cats are a popular pet in New Zealand. Cat ownership is occasionally raised as a controversial conservation issue due to the predation of endangered species, such as birds and lizards, by feral cats.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cats in Australia</span> Overview of the role and status of cats in Australia

Cats are an invasive species in Australia. Because they are not native to Australia and were only introduced by European colonists as pets in the early 1800s, native Australian animals did not co-evolve with them. As of 2016, some 3.8 million domestic cats and up to 6.3 million feral cats continue to live in Australia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Victoria Forest Park</span> Conservation park in New Zealand

Victoria Forest Park, is situated on the West Coast of the South Island of New Zealand. At 2,069 square kilometres (799 sq mi) it is New Zealand's largest forest park. The park is administered by the Department of Conservation (DOC).

Heirisson Prong is a community managed reserve established for the conservation of threatened mammals at Shark Bay in Western Australia. The reserve is at the point of a long narrow peninsula of the same name that juts into Shark Bay from the south.

References

  1. ↑ Price Persson, Charlotte (26 November 2017). "Scientist: Australia's feral cats should be eradicated". ScienceNordic.
  2. 1 2 3 Nogales, Manuel; Vidal, Eric; Medina, Félix M.; Bonnaud, Elsa; Thershy, Bernie R.; Campbell, Karl J.; Zavaleta, Erika S. (1 October 2013). "Feral Cats and Biodiversity Conservation: The Urgent Prioritization of Island Management" (PDF). BioScience. 63 (10): 804–810. doi: 10.1525/bio.2013.63.10.7 .
  3. 1 2 Crowley, Sarah L; Cecchetti, Martina; McDonald, Robbie A (3 September 2020). "Diverse perspectives of cat owners indicate barriers to and opportunities for managing cat predation of wildlife". Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment. 18 (10): 544–549. Bibcode:2020FrEE...18..544C. doi: 10.1002/fee.2254 . ISSN   1540-9295.
  4. 1 2 "Tackling Feral Cats and Their Impacts - Frequently asked questions" (PDF). Australian Government Department of the Environment and Energy. Retrieved 12 May 2018.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 Loss, Scott R.; Will, Tom; Marra, Peter P. (2013). "The impact of free-ranging domestic cats on wildlife of the United States". Nature Communications. 4 (1): 1396. Bibcode:2013NatCo...4.1396L. doi: 10.1038/ncomms2380 . ISSN   2041-1723. PMID   23360987.
  6. ↑ Lepczyk, Christopher A.; Fantle-Lepczyk, Jean E.; Dunham, Kylee D.; Bonnaud, Elsa; Lindner, Jocelyn; Doherty, Tim S.; Woinarski, John C. Z. (12 December 2023). "A global synthesis and assessment of free-ranging domestic cat diet". Nature Communications. 14 (1): 7809. Bibcode:2023NatCo..14.7809L. doi: 10.1038/s41467-023-42766-6 . ISSN   2041-1723. PMC   10716121 . PMID   38086838.
  7. ↑ Morelle, Rebecca (29 January 2013). "Cats killing billions of animals in the US". BBC News. Retrieved 12 February 2013.
  8. ↑ Edward Howe Forbush, "The Domestic Cat: Bird Killer, Mouser and Destroyer of Wildlife: Means of Utilizing and Controlling It", Commonwealth of Massachusetts, State Board of Agriculture, Economic Biology Bulletin 42, 1916.
  9. 1 2 3 4 Collar, N. J. (2001). Endangered Birds (PDF). Vol. 2. New York: Academic Press. p. 400. in Encyclopedia of Biodiversity
  10. ↑ Fan, M.; Kuang, Y.; Feng, Z. (September 2005). "Cats protecting birds revisited". Bulletin of Mathematical Biology. 67 (5): 1081–106. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.152.4561 . doi:10.1016/j.bulm.2004.12.002. PMID   15998496. S2CID   18709281.
  11. ↑ Hanna, Emily; Cardillo, Marcel (April 2014). "Island mammal extinctions are determined by interactive effects of life history, island biogeography and mesopredator suppression". Global Ecology and Biogeography. 23 (4): 395–404. Bibcode:2014GloEB..23..395H. doi:10.1111/geb.12103.
  12. ↑ Popkin, Gerald (29 August 2013). "Feral cats help some endangered mammals survive, report says". The Sydney Morning Herald.
  13. 1 2 Moors, P. J.; Atkinson, I. A. E. (1984). "Predation on seabirds by introduced animals, and factors affecting its severity". Status and Conservation of the World's Seabirds. Cambridge: ICBP. ISBN   0946888035.
  14. 1 2 Barcott, Bruce (2 December 2007). "Kill the Cat That Kills the Bird?". The New York Times .
  15. ↑ Pontier, D.; Natoli, E.; Say, L.; Debias, F.; Bried, J.; Thioulouse, J.; Micol, T.; Natoli, E. (2002). "The diet of feral cats (Felis catus L.) at five sites on the Grande Terre, Kerguelen archipelago" (PDF). Polar Biology . 25 (11): 833–837. Bibcode:2002PoBio..25..833P. doi:10.1007/s00300-002-0424-5. S2CID   17775055.
  16. ↑ Nogales, Manuel; Martin, Aurelio; Tershy, Bernie R.; Donlan, C. Josh; Veitch, Dick; Puerta, Nestor; Wood, Bill; Alonso, Jesus (2004). "A review of feral cat eradication on islands" (PDF). Conservation Biology . 18 (2): 310–319. Bibcode:2004ConBi..18..310N. doi:10.1111/j.1523-1739.2004.00442.x. hdl: 10261/22249 . S2CID   11594286. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 August 2021. Retrieved 25 February 2016.
  17. ↑ "Cat eradication from Ascension Island". PetsAsOests.Blogspot.com. 23 January 2014. Retrieved 1 November 2015.
  18. ↑ "Up against rats, rabbits and costs". The Sydney Morning Herald. 12 April 2007.
  19. ↑ "Fears for sub-antarctic island plagued by rabbits". ABC News . Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 15 July 2006. Archived from the original on 20 July 2006.
  20. ↑ Draper, Michelle; La Canna, Xavier (14 January 2009). "Cat kill devastates Macquarie Island". Nine News . Archived from the original on 6 July 2011.
  21. ↑ "Controversy on feral cat removal on Macquarie Island". PetsAsPests.Blogspot.com.es. 24 May 2013. Retrieved 1 November 2015.
  22. ↑ "Macquarie Island World Heritage Area: Plan for the Eradication of Rabbits and Rodents on Macquarie Island". Parks.Tas.gov.au. Parks and Wildlife Service, Tasmania. 2007. Archived from the original on 12 August 2007.
  23. ↑ Spencer, Peter B.S.; Yurchenko, Andrey A.; David, Victor A.; Scott, Rachael; Koepfli, Klaus-Peter; Driscoll, Carlos; O’Brien, Stephen J.; Menotti-Raymond, Marilyn (9 November 2015). "The Population Origins and Expansion of Feral Cats in Australia". Journal of Heredity. 107 (2): 104–114. doi:10.1093/jhered/esv095. PMC   4757960 . PMID   26647063.
  24. ↑ Dickman, Chris (May 1996). Overview of the Impacts of Feral Cats on Australian Native Fauna (PDF). National Parks and Wildlife – Australian Nature Conservation Agency – Institute of Wildlife Research. ISBN   9780642213792. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 11 February 2013.
  25. ↑ The Threat Of Feral Cats. Environment.nsw.gov.au (28 October 2011). Retrieved on 5 May 2013.
  26. ↑ Robley, A.; Reddiex, B.; Arthur, T.; Pech, R.; Forsyth, D. (September 2004). "Interactions between feral cats, foxes, native carnivores, and rabbits in Australia" (PDF). CSIRO Sustainable Ecosystems / Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental Research. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 March 2011. Retrieved 12 February 2013.
  27. ↑ Mercer, Phil (2 September 2007). "Australians cook up wild cat stew". BBC News.
  28. ↑ Dobson, Johnson; Hussey, Toby. "Numbat numbers at WA's Dryandra Woodland grow as feral cat culling program kicks in". ABC. Retrieved 20 November 2020.
  29. ↑ "Australian feral cats kill a million reptiles a day: study". phys.org. Retrieved 22 November 2022.
  30. ↑ Blancher, Peter (20 September 2013). "Estimated Number of Birds Killed by House Cats (Felis catus) in Canada". Avian Conservation and Ecology. 8 (2). doi: 10.5751/ACE-00557-080203 . ISSN   1712-6568.
  31. 1 2 Li, Yuhan; Wan, Yue; Shen, Hua; Loss, Scott R.; Marra, Peter P.; Li, Zhongqiu (January 2021). "Estimates of wildlife killed by free-ranging cats in China". Biological Conservation. 253: 108929. Bibcode:2021BCons.25308929L. doi: 10.1016/j.biocon.2020.108929 . ISSN   0006-3207.
  32. ↑ King, Carolyn (1984). Immigrant Killers. Auckland: Oxford University Press. ISBN   0195581210.
  33. ↑ Eason, Charles T.; Morgan, David R.; Clapperton, B. Kay (1992). Toxic bait and baiting strategies for feral cats. University of Nebraska – Lincoln: Proceedings of the Fifteenth Vertebrate Pest Conference 1992.
  34. ↑ Dowling, Stephen (20 February 2023). "Should New Zealand cats be kept indoors?". BBC News.
  35. ↑ Seymour, Colleen L.; Simmons, Robert E.; Morling, Frances; George, Sharon T.; Peters, Koebraa; O'Riain, M. Justin (1 September 2020). "Caught on camera: The impacts of urban domestic cats on wild prey in an African city and neighbouring protected areas". Global Ecology and Conservation. 23: e01198. doi: 10.1016/j.gecco.2020.e01198 . ISSN   2351-9894. S2CID   225177409.
  36. 1 2 "Cats killing huge numbers of British birds, Sir David Attenborough warns". The Guardian. 10 December 2013.
  37. ↑ "Are cats causing bird declines?" The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, accessed 23 June 2014.
  38. ↑ Webster, Ben (30 December 2015). "RSPB accused of going soft on cats to appease donors". The Sunday Times. Retrieved 27 September 2020.
  39. ↑ "In the UK, the vast majority of pet cats have free access to the outside world, or are at least allowed to go outside unsupervised for large parts of the day." "A world of difference – How cat ownership in America differs to the UK", Pets4Homes, accessed 1 September 2014.
  40. 1 2 "SongBird Survival Cats". Archived from the original on 31 July 2016. Retrieved 22 March 2017.
  41. ↑ "61 Fun Cat Statistics That Are the Cat's Meow! (2022 Update)". 12 December 2020. Retrieved 25 October 2022.
  42. ↑ "Outdoor Cats: Single Greatest Source of Human-Caused Mortality for Birds and Mammals, Says New Study". American Bird Conservancy. Retrieved 25 October 2022.
  43. ↑ Dauphiné, N.; Cooper, R. (2009). "Impact of Free-ranging Domestic Cats (Felis catus) on Birds in the United States: A Review of Recent Research with Conservation and Management Recommendations". Nature Communications. S2CID   32706748.
  44. 1 2 Hess, Steven C.; Banko, Paul C. (2006). Feral cats: Too long a threat to Hawaiian wildlife. "Publications of the US Geological Survey" no. 112. Reston, Virginia: U.S. Dept. of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey.
  45. ↑ "Cats vs. Rats, Rats Are Winning: Cats are not efficient predators of New York City's rats". Cat Watch, vol. 23, no. 1, January 2019, p. 5. Gale General OneFile, link.gale.com/apps/doc/A565512008/ITOF?u=cuny_broo39667&sid=bookmark-ITOF&xid=b3c704f8. Accessed 3 November 2022.
  46. ↑ Kobilinsky, Dana (3 October 2018). "Rats! Feral cats fail at urban rodent control". The Wildlife Society. Retrieved 28 February 2020.
  47. ↑ Parsons, Michael H.; Banks, Peter B.; Deutsch, Michael A.; Munshi-South, Jason (27 September 2018). "Temporal and Space-Use Changes by Rats in Response to Predation by Feral Cats in an Urban Ecosystem". Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution. 6. doi: 10.3389/fevo.2018.00146 .
  48. ↑ Solly, Meilan. "Cats Are Surprisingly Bad at Killing Rats". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved 28 February 2020.
  49. ↑ "North Side's 47th Ward Using Feral Cats To Catch Rats", CBS Chicago, 28 June 2012.
  50. ↑ "Cats Are No Match for New York City's Rats". The Atlantic . 28 September 2018.
  51. ↑ Beckerman, A. P.; Boots, M.; Gaston, K. J. (August 2007). "Urban bird declines and the fear of cats". Animal Conservation. 10 (3): 320–325. Bibcode:2007AnCon..10..320B. doi:10.1111/j.1469-1795.2007.00115.x. ISSN   1367-9430. S2CID   27476928.
  52. ↑ Loss, Scott R.; Marra, Peter P. (October 12, 2017). "Population impacts of free-ranging domestic cats on mainland vertebrates". Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment . 15 (9): 502–509. Bibcode:2017FrEE...15..502L. doi:10.1002/fee.1633. JSTOR   44989405. S2CID   89648301.
  53. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Mcruer, Dave L.; Gray, Lincoln C.; Horne, Leigh-Ann; Clark Jr., Edward E. (21 June 2016). "Free-roaming Cat Interactions With Wildlife Admitted to a Wildlife Hospital". Journal of Wildlife Management. 81: 163–173. doi:10.1002/jwmg.21181.
  54. 1 2 3 4 Crowley, Sarah L.; Cecchetti, Martina; McDonald, Robbie A. (2019). "Hunting behaviour in domestic cats: An exploratory study of risk and responsibility among cat owners". People and Nature. 1 (1): 18–30. Bibcode:2019PeoNa...1...18C. doi: 10.1002/pan3.6 . hdl: 10871/34565 .
  55. ↑ Loyd, Kerrie Ann T.; Hernandez, Sonia M. (2015). "Public Perceptions of Domestic Cats and Preferences for Feral Cat Management in the Southeastern United States". Anthrozoös. 25 (3): 337–351. doi:10.2752/175303712X13403555186299. S2CID   42912883 . Retrieved 2 March 2021.
  56. ↑ Ottoni, Claudio; Van Neer, Wim; De Cupere, Bea; Daligault, Julien; Guimaraes, Silvia; Peters, Joris; Spassov, Nikolai; Prendergast, Mary E.; Boivin, Nicole; Morales-Muñiz, Arturo; Bălăşescu, Adrian; Becker, Cornelia; Benecke, Norbert; Boroneant, Adina; Buitenhuis, Hijlke (19 June 2017). "The palaeogenetics of cat dispersal in the ancient world". Nature Ecology & Evolution. 1 (7): 0139. Bibcode:2017NatEE...1..139O. doi:10.1038/s41559-017-0139. ISSN   2397-334X. S2CID   44041769.
  57. ↑ Crowley, Sarah L.; Cecchetti, Martina; McDonald, Robbie A. (1 June 2020). "Our Wild Companions: Domestic cats in the Anthropocene". Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 35 (6): 477–483. doi: 10.1016/j.tree.2020.01.008 . ISSN   0169-5347. PMID   32396814.
  58. ↑ Trouwborst, Arie; McCormack, Phillipa C.; Martínez Camacho, Elvira (March 2020). Young, Juliette (ed.). "Domestic cats and their impacts on biodiversity: A blind spot in the application of nature conservation law". People and Nature. 2 (1): 235–250. Bibcode:2020PeoNa...2..235T. doi: 10.1002/pan3.10073 . ISSN   2575-8314.
  59. ↑ Saleh, Meriam N.; Allen, Kelly E.; Lineberry, Megan W.; Little, Susan E.; Reichard, Mason V. (June 2021). "Ticks infesting dogs and cats in North America: Biology, geographic distribution, and pathogen transmission". Veterinary Parasitology. 294: 109392. doi:10.1016/j.vetpar.2021.109392. ISSN   0304-4017. PMC   9235321 . PMID   33971481.
  60. 1 2 Gerhold, R. W.; Jessup, D. A. (26 July 2012). "Zoonotic Diseases Associated with Free-Roaming Cats". Zoonoses and Public Health. 60 (3): 189–195. doi:10.1111/j.1863-2378.2012.01522.x. ISSN   1863-1959. PMID   22830565. S2CID   19446082.
  61. ↑ "Toxoplasmosis in Cats". Cornell University College of Veterinary Medicine. 4 October 2017. Retrieved 25 October 2022.
  62. ↑ Trouwborst, Arie; McCormack, Phillipa C.; Martínez Camacho, Elvira (4 February 2020). "Domestic cats and their impacts on biodiversity: A blind spot in the application of nature conservation law". People and Nature. 2 (1): 235–250. Bibcode:2020PeoNa...2..235T. doi: 10.1002/pan3.10073 . ISSN   2575-8314.
  63. 1 2 3 Coe, Seraiah T; Elmore, Jared A. (23 December 2021). "Free-ranging domestic cat abundance and sterilization percentage following five years of a trap–neuter–return program". Wildlife Biology. 2021. doi: 10.2981/wlb.00799 . S2CID   233938210.
  64. ↑ Hostetler, Mark; Wisely, Samantha M.. "How Effective and Humane Is Trap-Neuter-Release (TNR) for Feral Cats?". IFAS Extension. University of Florida. Retrieved 14 April 2022.
  65. ↑ Debrot, Adolphe O.; Ruijter, Martin N. M. (17 January 2022). "A renewed call for conservation leadership 10 years further in the feral cat Trap-Neuter-Return debate and new opportunities for constructive dialogue". Conservation Science and Practice. 4 (4). Bibcode:2022ConSP...4E2641D. doi: 10.1111/csp2.12641 . S2CID   246512934.
  66. ↑ Gotsis, Tom. "Feral cats: Do Trap-NeuterReturn programs work?" (PDF). NSW Parliamentary Research Service. Retrieved 19 November 2022.
  67. ↑ Metsers, Elizabeth M.; Seddon, Philip J.; van Heezik, Yolanda M. (2010). "Cat-exclusion zones in rural and urban-fringe landscapes: how large would they have to be?". Wildlife Research. 37 (1): 47. doi:10.1071/wr09070. ISSN   1035-3712.
  68. ↑ Thomas, Rebecca L.; Fellowes, Mark D. E.; Baker, Philip J. (16 November 2012). "Spatio-Temporal Variation in Predation by Urban Domestic Cats (Felis catus) and the Acceptability of Possible Management Actions in the UK". PLOS ONE. 7 (11): e49369. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...749369T. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0049369 . ISSN   1932-6203. PMC   3500283 . PMID   23173057.

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.