Coleophora laricella | |
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Scientific classification ![]() | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Arthropoda |
Class: | Insecta |
Order: | Lepidoptera |
Family: | Coleophoridae |
Genus: | Coleophora |
Species: | C. laricella |
Binomial name | |
Coleophora laricella (Hübner, 1817) | |
Synonyms | |
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Coleophora laricella, the western larch case-bearer, is a moth belonging to the family of case-bearing moths Coleophoridae. It is native to Central and Northern Europe, with its original food source being the European larch or Larix decidua . However, it was introduced to North America in the mid-19th century where it has gained a wide range and become an invasive defoliater of several species of the genus Larix , particularly the western larch Larix occidentalis and the tamarack larch Larix laricina .
Coleophora laricella produces one generation per year with four life stages egg, larva (with four instars, or growth stages), pupa and adult.
Adult females produce 50–70 eggs, deposited one at a time on the needles of the larch. New eggs are a bright yellow colour, but they later turn burnished red. Eggs have 12 to 14 ridges extending from the top to the base of the egg. In areas with dense C. laricella infestations, females may deposit as many as 10 eggs per needle. Eggs hatch in about two weeks. [1]
Larvae are 5–6 mm long, hatch in July, and pupate about 11 months later. The first and second instar larvae hatch and bore directly from the egg into the needle, and mine inside the needle until August or September, during which the hollowed out needle is converted into the distinctive case. Once the case is created, the larvae progress to the third instar during which the case is fastened to a new needle with silk. The larvae continue to mine the needles discarding old cases as new needles are hollowed out and converted. In October, the larvae prepare for winter by attaching their cases to more solid parts of the tree (twigs, bark, etc.). When spring comes and the larch refoliates the larvae molt into the fourth instar stage and continue mining. [1] [2]
The pupal stages lasts for about two weeks late May or early June. It is marked by the degradation of the needle/case structure to cigar shaped and light gray. [1]
Adult moths are small (4–6 mm long with a 6–10 mm wingspan), very narrow and silvery brown in colour. They lack ocelli and maxillary palps. The wings are discal, sharply pointed and "fringed" or tattered looking. They are on the wing from May to July. [3] The head is grey; the antennae grey-whitish, very indistinctly ringed with grey. Forewings are shining grey, hindwings grey. [4]
Despite the fact that larches drop their needles in the winter and refoliate in the spring, the repeated, seasonal mining behavior performed by the larvae and the pupae of C. laricella is extremely damaging to the host tree. After five years of infestation in most species of Larix the annual growth rate is reduced by 97%. New growth is limited by 50%, which makes for a $3 million yearly loss of stumpage value. Infested trees are also extremely susceptible to other infestations and diseases, such as armillarial root disease, caused by Armillaria sinapina . [1] [2]
C. laricella are weather and temperature sensitive and natural fluctuations from year to year can greatly reduce populations. Needle blights which reduce the food supply for larva can also act as a reducing agent. Additionally, native predation and parasitism keep populations in check. [1]
Where natural controls are not enough to prevent severe defoliation non-native parasites have been introduced. The most important two being Agathis pumila and Chrysocharis laricinellae, which are fly-like European wasps. A. pumila was shown to be effective in eastern North America in the 1930s, but had less success in the west. C. laricinellae, a heartier parasite that only targets C. laricella was introduced in Montana, Idaho, Oregon and Washington, where it has had much greater success. Since 1960 these two species, combined with natural factors have parasitized over 90% of the casebearer populations in some areas. [1] [5] [6]
In stands of high aesthetic, commercial or conservation value the USDA Forest Service has authorized the use of the insecticide malathion for larval control. [1]
Larix laricina, commonly known as the tamarack, hackmatack, eastern larch, black larch, red larch, or American larch, is a species of larch native to Canada, from eastern Yukon and Inuvik, Northwest Territories east to Newfoundland, and also south into the upper northeastern United States from Minnesota to Cranesville Swamp, West Virginia; there is also an isolated population in central Alaska.
Tent caterpillars are moderately sized caterpillars, or moth larvae, belonging to the genus Malacosoma in the family Lasiocampidae. Twenty-six species have been described, six of which occur in North America and the rest in Eurasia. Some species are considered to have subspecies as well. They are often considered pests for their habit of defoliating trees. They are among the most social of all caterpillars and exhibit many noteworthy behaviors.
Pristiphora erichsonii, the larch sawfly, is a species of sawfly. The adult sawfly resembles a black wasp, is about ½ inch in length with a thick waist and has brown to orangish markings on the abdomen. Larvae have black heads, gray-green bodies with white undersides, and are about 15–18 mm long when full grown. Larvae occur in groups and characteristically curl their bodies upward in a "J" shape when disturbed.
Choristoneura fumiferana, the eastern spruce budworm, is a species of moth of the family Tortricidae native to the eastern United States and Canada. The caterpillars feed on the needles of spruce and fir trees. Eastern spruce budworm populations can experience significant oscillations, with large outbreaks sometimes resulting in wide scale tree mortality. The first recorded outbreaks of the spruce budworm in the United States occurred in about 1807, and since 1909 there have been waves of budworm outbreaks throughout the eastern United States and Canada. In Canada, the major outbreaks occurred in periods circa 1910–20, c. 1940–50, and c. 1970–80, each of which impacted millions of hectares of forest. Longer-term tree-ring studies suggest that spruce budworm outbreaks have been recurring approximately every three decades since the 16th century, and paleoecological studies suggest the spruce budworm has been breaking out in eastern North America for thousands of years.
Hyblaea puera, the teak defoliator, is a moth and cryptic species complex native to South Asia and South-east Asia. It was first described by Pieter Cramer in 1777. The species has also been recently reported to be present in Central America and Africa. The caterpillar feeds on teak and other trees. It is considered to be one of the major teak pests around the world.
Galleria mellonella, the greater wax moth or honeycomb moth, is a moth of the family Pyralidae. G. mellonella is found throughout the world. It is one of two species of wax moths, with the other being the lesser wax moth. G. mellonella eggs are laid in the spring, and they have four life stages. Males are able to generate ultrasonic sound pulses, which, along with pheromones, are used in mating. The larvae of G. mellonella are also often used as a model organism in research.
Peridroma saucia, the pearly underwing or variegated cutworm, is a moth of the family Noctuidae. The species was first described by Jacob Hübner in 1808. It is found in North and South America, Europe, Asia and Africa. The variegated cutworm feeds on many plants, especially common fruits and vegetables. The moth undergoes two to four generations per year. The development of the moth slows in colder temperatures, indicative of its migratory nature. All stages of the life cycle have a developmental threshold for temperature. The moth is known to migrate to the northern regions during warmer months, returning to the southern regions when the climate becomes colder.
Parornix anglicella is a moth of the family Gracillariidae found in Asia and Europe. It was described in 1850, by the English entomologist Henry Tibbats Stainton, from a specimen from Lewisham, Kent.
The trefoil thick-horned tinea or large clover case-bearer is a moth of the family Coleophoridae. It is found in Europe, North Africa, Asia Minor, Afghanistan and North America.
Coleophora arctostaphyli is a moth of the family Coleophoridae. It is found in Europe.
Coleophora argentula is a moth of the family Coleophoridae, found in most of Europe, Russia and Asia Minor. The larvae live in cases and feed on the seeds of yarrow and sneezewort.
Coleophora obducta is a moth of the family Coleophoridae. It is found in Japan and Russia (Baikal).
The elm casebearer moth is a moth of the family Coleophoridae. It is found in Canada, including Ontario.
Coleophora sinensis is a moth of the family Coleophoridae. It is found in Shanxi and Hebei provinces of China.
Coleophora maturella is a moth of the family Coleophoridae. It is found in Russia.
Lymantria dispar dispar, commonly known as the gypsy moth, European gypsy moth, LDD moth, or North American gypsy moth or spongy moth, is a species of moth in the family Erebidae. It has a native range that extends over Europe and parts of Africa, and is an invasive species in North America.
The Coconut black headed caterpillar, is a species of moth found in throughout East Asian countries including Bangladesh, India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, as well as Indonesia. It is considered a pest of coconut palm trees, causing considerable damage to the trees, and reducing the plant's yield significantly and can be a major problem where coconuts contribute to the economy. The species exists on coconut palms through its life stages from larval to moth, and utilizes the tree fronds as a main source of nutrition. Various methods of control have been explored, yet the primary control method is the administration of pesticides directly to the root of the coconut palms.
Neodiprion abietis, commonly known as the balsam fir sawfly, is a species of insect in the family Diprionidae. It is found in North America from Canada to northern Mexico and is phytophagous, feeding on the needles of coniferous trees.
The common pine sawfly, Diprion pini, is a sawfly species in the family Diprionidae. It is a serious pest of economic forestry, capable of defoliating large areas of pine forest. It occurs throughout Europe and Russia.
Profenusa thomsoni, the amber-marked birch leaf miner, is a species of sawfly in the family Tenthredinidae. It is native to the Palearctic realm but has spread to North America. The larvae feed on the foliage of birch trees.