| Colletotrichum higginsianum | |
|---|---|
Scientific classification  | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Fungi |
| Division: | Ascomycota |
| Class: | Sordariomycetes |
| Order: | Glomerellales |
| Family: | Glomerellaceae |
| Genus: | Colletotrichum |
| Species: | C. higginsianum |
| Binomial name | |
| Colletotrichum higginsianum Sacc., (1917) | |
Colletotrichum higginsianum is an ascomycete pathogen that causes anthracnose disease on many plants in the Brassicaceae, including Arabidopsis thaliana and many cultivated forms of Brassica and Raphanus . [1]
Colletotrichum higginsianum belongs to the phylum of Ascomycota. The order this fungus is categorized into is Glomerellas. Its genus is Colletotrichum and its species is higginsianum. The genus of Colletrotrichum belongs to a class of fungi that are recognized for being a phytopathogen. There are over 248 different species of Colletotrichum and over 14 species complexes. The genus Colletotrichum was first proposed in 1831 (Jospeh, 1831). Colletotrichum higginsianum was originally discovered in 2012 by Dr. Richard J. O'Connell. He sequenced its genome through the use of short-read data from 454 GSFLX (350 bp) and Illumina GAII (100 bp) sequencing platforms and Sanger reads. [2] Thus, unlocking a whole new realm of research for this interesting species. C. higginsianum forms part of a group of closely-related taxa that also includes C. destructivum, which is a pathogen to tobacco and legume plant species, and C. linicola, a flax pathogen. [1]
In order to identify Colletotrichum higginsianum, you would first start off searching for small, dark spots or water-soaked lesions on leaves, stems, or fruits. Reasoning one would look for these identifications is because Colletotrichumhigginsianum produces spores in acervuli, which are fungal fruiting structures that break through the surface of the host tissue. While the fruiting structure of this fungus is growing on its host, it causes severe damage to the hosts tissue and cells. To make it even more interesting, Colletotrichumhigginsianum additionally goes through multiple stages when infecting its host. In the initial stage, the fungus punctures through the host surface with appressoria. As time progresses, the hyphae inside the host cells will become bulbous biotrophic, which they can then proceed and transition into their final stage. During this final stage, the fungusi fully emerges, absorbing all the nutrients of the plant, essentially killing and destroying the host tissue. This would define its final stage as nectrotrophy (a parasitic process where an organism kills the living cells of its host and then feeds on the dead matter).
Colletotrichum higginsianum is a hemibiotrophic fungus. This means that in order for this fungus to obtain energy, it "first establishes a biotrophic interaction by evading the plant’s defense mechanisms and later switches to a necrotrophic phase, in which it kills the host cells and feeds on them. Through research and studies, we have now observed that the role of a terpenoid in manipulating the host defense response was discovered through a forward chemical genetics approach, using Arabidopsis thaliana and C. higginsianum as the plantepathogen pair." [3] [4] [5] Since this species is a pathogenic fungus, it can be found infecting species of the Brassicaceae family, including Arabidopsis thaliana, Brassica, and Raphanus. "Brassicaceae contains some 338 genera and more than 3,700 species of flowering plants distributed throughout the world". [6] Additionally, Colletotrichum higginsianum can be found on multiple parts around the world since they infect common crops found globally. Data has shown us that the fungus does prefer to grow in environments that are tropical or subtropical. Some examples of countries would be Tunisia, China, and Hubei. Additionally, this fungusi is found in various countries in Europe. Another important factor is the temperature that the fungus can survive in. Colletotrichum species, including C. higginsianum, generally survive in temperatures ranging from 20-30 degrees Celsius.Laaslty, since this fungus can be located on a diversity of plant species and geographically, this makes controlling or the regulation of this fungus so much harder.
Being a fungus that can be found on multiple parts of the globe, Colletotrichum higginsianum is economically important for humans because it can infect thousands of different species of flowering species, such as but not limited to: basket-of-gold (Aurinia saxatilis), cabbage and relatives (genus Brassica), peppergrass (genus Lepidium), wasabi (Eutrema japonicum), and wild radish (Raphanus raphanistrum). This directly affects humans because it causes diseases to plants which results in decreased yield in crops. Additionally, since they are nectrophoic during its final stage, this kills and destroys the host tissue, resulting in more crops dying. In regions where they do not have the ability to expend extra resources on crops or agriculture, one sweep of this pathogenic fungusi could not only be detrimental to the plant species, but significantly decrease the production of food and medicine. It is also important to notate that if crops were to become infected with this fungus, it is very easy to spread to other plant species since this fungus can disperse its spores via wind and or water-splashing (Spores are embedded in a slimy matrix and can be spread to nearby plants by splashing water). This makes it even more of a challenge combating against this fungus and controlling its invasion. Now at this current time, there aren't any direct applications or use for Colletotrichumhigginsianum. Thankfully, current studies are being conducted in order to maintain control of the anthracnose disease (group of a fungal diseases that causes dark lesions on leaves, stems, flowers, and fruits of many trees). "By recognizing host physical and chemical cues, C. higginsianum conidia differentiate melanized appressorium, an infection structure, at the tips of conidial germ tubes. Appressorium formation is required for successful infection since the fungus penetrates the cuticle and plant cell wall by utilization of enormous turgor pressure in melanized appressoria for further invasive growth. [2] Thus, inhibition of melanized appressorium formation will facilitate the efficient control of anthracnose disease". [7] This translates into the objective of seizing or preventing the formation of appressorium (a specialized structure that some parasitic fungi use to attach to and penetrate a host plant or animal) in order to maintain control of the fungal disease that infects plant species. Furthermore, lowering the infection rate of fungal pathogens in various plant species.
Rusts are fungal plant pathogens of the order Pucciniales causing plant fungal diseases.
Botrytis cinerea is a necrotrophic fungus that affects many plant species, although its most notable hosts may be wine grapes. In viticulture, it is commonly known as "botrytis bunch rot"; in horticulture, it is usually called "grey mould" or "gray mold".
Magnaporthe grisea, also known as rice blast fungus, rice rotten neck, rice seedling blight, blast of rice, oval leaf spot of graminea, pitting disease, ryegrass blast, Johnson spot, neck blast, wheat blast and Imochi (稲熱), is a plant-pathogenic fungus and model organism that causes a serious disease affecting rice. It is now known that M. grisea consists of a cryptic species complex containing at least two biological species that have clear genetic differences and do not interbreed. Complex members isolated from Digitaria have been more narrowly defined as M. grisea. The remaining members of the complex isolated from rice and a variety of other hosts have been renamed Magnaporthe oryzae, within the same M. grisea complex. Confusion on which of these two names to use for the rice blast pathogen remains, as both are now used by different authors.
Hyaloperonospora parasitica is an oomycete from the family Peronosporaceae. It has been considered for a long time to cause downy mildew of a variety of species within the Brassicaceae, on which the disease can cause economically important damage by killing seedlings or affecting the quality of produce intended for freezing. Hyaloperonospora parasitica causes downy mildew on a wide range of many different plants. It belongs to the Kingdom Chromista, the phylum Oomycota, and the family Peronosporaceae. The former name for H. parasitica was Peronospora parasitica until it was reclassified and put in the genus Hyaloperonospora. It is an especially vicious disease on crops of the family Brassicaceae. It is most famous for being a model pathogen of Arabidopsis thaliana which is a model organism used for experimental purposes. Accordingly, the former Hyaloperonospora parasitica has been split into a large number of species. For instance, the taxonomically correct name of the parasite of the well-known model organism Arabidopsis thaliana is Hyaloperonospora arabidopsidis, not H. parasitica, whereas the pathogen of Brassica has to be called Hyaloperonospora brassicae.
Glomerella graminicola is an economically important crop parasite affecting both wheat and maize where it causes the plant disease Anthracnose Leaf Blight.
Colletotrichum acutatum is a plant pathogen and endophyte. It is the organism that causes the most destructive fungal disease, anthracnose, of lupin species worldwide. It also causes the disease postbloom fruit drop on many varieties of citrus, especially Valencia and navel oranges in Florida.
Pseudocercosporella capsellae is a plant pathogen infecting crucifers. P. capsellae is the causal pathogen of white leaf spot disease, which is an economically significant disease in global agriculture. P. capsellae has a significant effect on crop yields on agricultural products, such as canola seed and rapeseed. Researchers are working hard to find effective methods of controlling this plant pathogen, using cultural control, genetic resistance, and chemical control practices. Due to its rapidly changing genome, P. capsellae is a rapidly emerging plant pathogen that is beginning to spread globally and affect farmers around the world.
Colletotrichum trifolii is a fungal plant pathogen of alfalfa, causing the disease alfafa anthracnose. It is a biotroph, obtaining nutrients from the living plant cells before forming asexual spores. This fungus has two known races Bain and Essary.
Colletotrichum kahawae is a fungal plant pathogen that causes coffee berry disease (CBD) on Coffea arabica crops. The pathogen is an ascomycete that reproduces asexually. The asexual spores (conidia) are stored within acervuli. This disease is considered to be one of the major factors hampering C.arabica production in the African continent, which represents the current geographic range of the fungus. Coffee berry disease causes dark necrosis in spots and causes the green berries of the coffee to drop prematurely. High humidity, relatively warm temperatures, and high altitude are ideal for disease formation. Given the severity of the disease and the lack of effective control measures, there is great concern that the fungus may spread to other coffee producing continents, such as South America, which could have catastrophic consequences.
Zymoseptoria tritici, synonyms Septoria tritici, Mycosphaerella graminicola, is a species of filamentous fungus, an ascomycete in the family Mycosphaerellaceae. It is a wheat plant pathogen causing septoria leaf blotch that is difficult to control due to resistance to multiple fungicides. The pathogen today causes one of the most important diseases of wheat.
Colletotrichum capsici is a species of fungus and plant pathogen which causes leaf blight on Chlorophytum borivilianum, basil, chickpea and pepper as well as dieback in pigeonpea and anthracnose in poinsettia.
Colletotrichum coccodes is a plant pathogen, which causes anthracnose on tomato and black dot disease of potato. Fungi survive on crop debris and disease emergence is favored by warm temperatures and wet weather.
Colletotrichum lindemuthianum is a fungus which causes anthracnose, or black spot disease, of the common bean plant. It is considered a hemibiotrophic pathogen because it spends part of its infection cycle as a biotroph, living off of the host but not harming it, and the other part as a necrotroph, killing and obtaining nutrients from the host tissues.
Colletotrichum orbiculare is a plant pathogen of melons and cucumber. It causes the disease anthracnose that can effect curcubits causing lesions on various parts of the plant. It can effect cucumbers, melon, squash, watermelon and pumpkin, especially when the weather is rainy, humid and warm. It can be transmitted by seed as well as soil and survive between crops. It is also spread by feeding cucumber beetles, splashing water, tools and workers. Efforts to control the fungus include the practice of rotating cucurbits out for a 2-year period, planting cultivars with resistance, burning infected crops and careful control of weeds. Chemical control measures are also available.
Glomerella cingulata is a fungal plant pathogen, being the name of the sexual stage (teleomorph) while the more commonly referred to asexual stage (anamorph) is called Colletotrichum gloeosporioides. For most of this article the pathogen will be referred to as C. gloeosporioides. This pathogen is a significant problem worldwide, causing anthracnose and fruit rotting diseases on hundreds of economically important hosts.
Colletotrichum fragariae is a fungal plant pathogen infecting strawberries. It is not a well known fungus, and there are many similar fungi that are related to it. It is part of the Colletotrichum genus. It is a pathogen that occurs in strawberries. It leads to the disease known as anthracnose. This is typically at the crown of the strawberry, which is why it is often called crown rot. It is also known as the Anthracnose Crown rot. The fungus also infects leaves and is known as leaf spot, which is common among all Colletotrichum. This is not as common in the fragariae, as it is more common in the crown. This fungus is also better at infecting younger strawberries/seedlings. The most common way to control this disease is fungicides that are harmful to the environment. There have been studies done to see if the fungus infects other hosts but other than some weeds, it is very specific to Strawberries.
Alternaria brassicicola is a fungal necrotrophic plant pathogen that causes black spot disease on a wide range of hosts, particularly in the genus of Brassica, including a number of economically important crops such as cabbage, Chinese cabbage, cauliflower, oilseeds, broccoli and canola. Although mainly known as a significant plant pathogen, it also contributes to various respiratory allergic conditions such as asthma and rhinoconjunctivitis. Despite the presence of mating genes, no sexual reproductive stage has been reported for this fungus. In terms of geography, it is most likely to be found in tropical and sub-tropical regions, but also in places with high rain and humidity such as Poland. It has also been found in Taiwan and Israel. Its main mode of propagation is vegetative. The resulting conidia reside in the soil, air and water. These spores are extremely resilient and can overwinter on crop debris and overwintering herbaceous plants.
Alternaria leaf spot or Alternaria leaf blight are a group of fungal diseases in plants, that have a variety of hosts. The diseases infects common garden plants, such as cabbage, and are caused by several closely related species of fungi. Some of these fungal species target specific plants, while others have been known to target plant families. One commercially relevant plant genus that can be affected by Alternaria Leaf Spot is Brassica, as the cosmetic issues caused by symptomatic lesions can lead to rejection of crops by distributors and buyers. When certain crops such as cauliflower and broccoli are infected, the heads deteriorate and there is a complete loss of marketability. Secondary soft-rotting organisms can infect stored cabbage that has been affected by Alternaria Leaf Spot by entering through symptomatic lesions. Alternaria Leaf Spot diseases that affect Brassica species are caused by the pathogens Alternaria brassicae and Alternaria brassicicola.
Hemibiotrophs are the spectrum of plant pathogens, including bacteria, oomycete and a group of plant pathogenic fungi that keep its host alive while establishing itself within the host tissue, taking up the nutrients with brief biotrophic-like phase. It then, in later stages of infection switches to a necrotrophic life-style, where it rampantly kills the host cells, deriving its nutrients from the dead tissues.
Colletotrichum fioriniae is a fungal plant pathogen and endophyte of fruits and foliage of many broadleaved plants worldwide. It causes diseases on agriculturally important crops, including anthracnose of strawberry, ripe rot of grapes, bitter rot of apple, anthracnose of peach, and anthracnose of blueberry. Its ecological role in the natural environment is less well understood, other than it is a common leaf endophyte of many temperate trees and shrubs and in some cases may function as an entomopathogen.