Permanent and Temporary differences
If an item in the profit and loss account is never chargeable or allowable for tax or is chargeable or allowable for tax purposes but never appears in the profit and loss account then this is a permanent difference. A permanent difference does not give rise to deferred tax.
If items are chargeable or allowable for tax purposes but in different periods to when the income or expense is recognised then this gives rise to temporary differences. Temporary difference do give rise to potential deferred tax, but the rules on whether the deferred asset or liability is actually recognised can vary.
Temporary differences are usually calculated on the differences between the carrying amount of an asset or liability recognized in the statements of financial position and the amount attributed to that asset or liability for tax at the beginning and end of the year. The differences in the charges to the profit and loss account compared to the amounts taxable or allowable can also be calculated and should reconcile the change in position at the beginning and end of the year. [1]
Example
The basic principle of accounting for deferred tax under a temporary difference approach can be illustrated using a common example in which a company has fixed assets that qualify for tax depreciation.
The following example assumes that a company purchases an asset for $1,000 which is depreciated for accounting purposes on a straight-line basis of five years of $200/year. The company claims tax depreciation of 25% per year on a reducing balance basis. The applicable rate of corporate income tax is assumed to be 35%, and the net value is subtracted.
| Purchase | Year 1 | Year 2 | Year 3 | Year 4 |
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| Accounting value | $1,000 | $800 | $600 | $400 | $200 |
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| Tax value | $1,000 | $750 | $563 | $422 | $316 |
|---|
| Taxable/(deductible) temporary difference | $0 | $50 | $37 | $(22) | $(116) |
|---|
| Deferred tax liability/(asset) at 35% | $0 | $18 | $13 | $(8) | $(41) |
|---|
As the tax value, or tax base, is lower than the accounting value, or book value, in years 1 and 2, the company should recognize a deferred tax liability. This also reflects that the company has claimed tax depreciation in excess of the expense for accounting depreciation recorded in its accounts, whereas in the future the company should claim less tax depreciation in total than accounting depreciation in its accounts.
In years 3 and 4, the tax value exceeds the accounting value, therefore the company should recognise a deferred tax asset (subject to it having sufficient forecast profits so that it is able to use future tax deductions). This reflects that the company expects to be able to claim tax depreciation in excess of accounting depreciation.
Derecognition of deferred tax assets and liabilities
Management has an obligation to accurately report the true state of the company, and to make judgements and estimations where necessary. In the context of tax assets and liabilities, there must be a reasonable likelihood that the tax difference may be realised in future years.
For example, a tax asset may appear on the company's accounts due to losses in previous years (if carry-forward of tax losses is allowed). In this case a deferred tax asset should be recognised if and only if the management considered that there will be sufficient future taxable profit to use the tax loss. [2] If it becomes clear that the company does not expect to make profits in future years, the value of the tax asset has been impaired: in the estimation of management, the likelihood that this tax loss can be used in the future has significantly fallen.
In cases where the carrying value of tax assets or liabilities has changed, the company may need to do a write-down, and in certain cases involving in particular a fundamental error, a restatement of its financial results from previous years. Such write-downs may involve either significant income or expenditure being recorded in the company's profit and loss for the financial year in which the write-down takes place.
International Financial Reporting Standards, commonly called IFRS, are accounting standards issued by the IFRS Foundation and the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB). They constitute a standardised way of describing the company's financial performance and position so that company financial statements are understandable and comparable across international boundaries. They are particularly relevant for companies with shares or securities publicly listed.
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Accounting for leases in the United States is regulated by the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) by the Financial Accounting Standards Number 13, now known as Accounting Standards Codification Topic 840. These standards were effective as of January 1, 1977. The FASB completed in February 2016 a revision of the lease accounting standard, referred to as ASC 842.
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In insurance, deferred acquisition costs (DAC) is an asset on the balance sheet representing the deferral of the cost of acquiring new insurance contracts, thereby amortising the costs over their duration. Insurance companies face large upfront costs incurred in issuing new business, such as commissions to sales agents, underwriting, bonus interest and other acquisition expenses.
