Toluene, also known as toluol, is a substituted aromatic hydrocarbon. It is a colorless, water-insoluble liquid with the smell associated with paint thinners. It is a mono-substituted benzene derivative, consisting of a methyl group (CH3) attached to a phenyl group. As such, its systematic IUPAC name is methylbenzene. Toluene is predominantly used as an industrial feedstock and a solvent.
Petrochemicals are the chemical products obtained from petroleum by refining. Some chemical compounds made from petroleum are also obtained from other fossil fuels, such as coal or natural gas, or renewable sources such as maize, palm fruit or sugar cane.
Xylene (from Greek ξύλον xylon, "wood"), xylol or dimethylbenzene is any one of three isomers of dimethylbenzene, or a combination thereof. With the formula (CH3)2C6H4, in each of the three compounds two hydrogen atoms in the benzene ring are substituted by two methyl groups. They are all colorless, flammable, slightly greasy liquids. They are of great industrial value. The mixture is referred to as both xylene and, more precisely, xylenes. Mixed xylenes refers to a mixture of the xylenes plus ethylbenzene. The four compounds have identical empirical formulas C8H10. Typically the four compounds are produced together by various catalytic reforming and pyrolysis methods.
In thermodynamics, the phase rule is a general principle governing "pVT" systems in thermodynamic equilibrium. If F is the number of degrees of freedom, C is the number of components and P is the number of phases, then
Cosmetology is the study and application of beauty treatment. Branches of specialty include hairstyling, skin care, cosmetics, manicures/pedicures, non-permanent hair removal such as waxing and sugaring, and permanent hair removal processes such as electrology and intense pulsed light (IPL).
Toluene diisocyanate (TDI) is an organic compound with the formula CH3C6H3(NCO)2. Two of the six possible isomers are commercially important: 2,4-TDI (CAS: 584-84-9) and 2,6-TDI (CAS: 91-08-7). 2,4-TDI is produced in the pure state, but TDI is often marketed as 80/20 and 65/35 mixtures of the 2,4 and 2,6 isomers respectively. It is produced on a large scale, accounting for 34.1% of the global isocyanate market in 2000, second only to MDI. Approximately 1.4 billion kilograms were produced in 2000. All isomers of TDI are colorless, although commercial samples can appear yellow.
2,4-Dinitrotoluene (DNT) or dinitro is an organic compound with the formula C7H6N2O4. This pale yellow crystalline solid is well known as a precursor to trinitrotoluene (TNT) but is mainly produced as a precursor to toluene diisocyanate.
Toluene toxicity refers to the harmful effects caused by toluene on the body.
The Dean–Stark apparatus, Dean–Stark receiver, distilling trap, or Dean–Stark Head is a piece of laboratory glassware used in synthetic chemistry to collect water from a reactor. It is used in combination with a reflux condenser and a batch reactor for continuous removal of the water that is produced during a chemical reaction performed at reflux temperature. It was invented by the American chemists Ernest Woodward Dean (1888–1959) and David Dewey Stark (1893–1979) in 1920 for determination of the water content in petroleum.
Hexamethylene diisocyanate (HDI or HMDI) is the organic compound with the formula (CH2)6(NCO)2. It is classified as an diisocyanate. It is a colorless liquid.
In stereochemistry, cryptochirality is a special case of chirality in which a molecule is chiral but its specific rotation is non-measurable. The underlying reason for the lack of rotation is the specific electronic properties of the molecule. The term was introduced by Kurt Mislow in 1977.
Methylcyclohexane is an organic compound with the molecular formula is CH3C6H11. Classified as saturated hydrocarbon, it is a colourless liquid with a faint odor. Methylcyclohexane is used as a solvent. It is mainly converted in naphtha reformers to toluene. Methylcyclohexane is also used in some correction fluids (such as White-Out) as a solvent.
The Indian Institute of Petroleum (IIP), established in 1960, is one of the constituent laboratories of the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), dedicated to R&D in the hydrocarbon sector.
Benzene (also called cyclohexatriene) is an organic chemical compound with the molecular formula C6H6. The benzene molecule is composed of six carbon atoms joined in a planar ring with one hydrogen atom attached to each. Because it contains only carbon and hydrogen atoms, benzene is classed as a hydrocarbon.
Commodity chemicals are a group of chemicals that are made on a very large scale to satisfy global markets. The average prices of commodity chemicals are regularly published in the chemical trade magazines and web sites such as Chemical Week and ICIS. There have been several studies of the scale and complexity of this market for example in the USA.
In organic chemistry, the Soai reaction is the alkylation of pyrimidine-5-carbaldehyde with diisopropylzinc. The reaction is autocatalytic and leads to rapidly increasing amounts of the same enantiomer of the product. The product pyrimidyl alcohol is chiral and induces that same chirality in further catalytic cycles. Starting with a low enantiomeric excess produces a product with very high enantiomeric excess. The reaction has been studied for clues about the origin of homochirality among certain classes of biomolecules.
Spontaneous absolute asymmetric synthesis is a chemical phenomenon that stochastically generates chirality based on autocatalysis and small fluctuations in the ratio of enantiomers present in a racemic mixture. In certain reactions which initially do not contain chiral information, stochastically distributed enantiomeric excess can be observed. The phenomenon is different from chiral amplification, where enantiomeric excess is present from the beginning and not stochastically distributed. Hence, when the experiment is repeated many times, the average enantiomeric excess approaches 0%. The phenomenon has important implications concerning the origin of homochirality in nature.
In the petroleum refining and petrochemical industries, the initialism BTX refers to mixtures of benzene, toluene, and the three xylene isomers, all of which are aromatic hydrocarbons. The xylene isomers are distinguished by the designations ortho –, meta –, and para – as indicated in the adjacent diagram. If ethylbenzene is included, the mixture is sometimes referred to as BTEX.
Donna Blackmond, Ph.D., is an American chemical engineer and the John C. Martin Endowed Chair in Chemistry at Scripps Research in La Jolla, CA. Her research focuses on prebiotic chemistry, the origin of biological homochirality, and kinetics and mechanisms of asymmetric catalytic reactions. Notable works include the development of Reaction Progress Kinetic Analysis (RPKA), analysis of non-linear effects of catalyst enantiopurity, biological homochirality and amino acid behavior.
Kensō Soai is a Japanese organic chemist. He is a university lecturer in the Applied Chemistry Department of Tokyo University of Science.
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