CDM transactions related to the electricity sector
1 registered CDM projects, 44,733 t CO2e annual emissions reductions
The electricity sector in Guyana is dominated by Guyana Power and Light (GPL), the state-owned vertically integrated utility. Although the country has a large potential for hydroelectric and bagasse-fueled power generation, most of its 226 MW of installed capacity correspond to thermoelectric diesel-engine driven generators.
Reliability or electricity supply is very low, linked both to technical and institutional deficiencies in the sector, with total losses close to 40% and commercial losses of about 30%. This low reliability has led most firms to install their own diesel generators, which in turn leads to higher than average electricity costs.
Electricity supply and demand
Guyana electricity production by source
Installed power generation capacity in Guyana in 2007 was 226 MW or 0.4 kW per capita, which is lower than in other countries in the region and is hardly sufficient to cover the current demand for electricity in the country. Most electricity generation uses Diesel engines to drive generators. There are plans for introduction of power generation facilities based on renewable resources, but these would still account for only a small share (10 percent) of the generation capacity in the country.[1]
Self-generation is widely spread in Guyana, where 100%, 82% and 37% of large, medium and small firms respectively own generators which supply them with 64%, 54% and 31% respectively of the total electricity consumed. A side effect of self-supply of energy is that the corporate demand for electricity in some regions of the country has decreased significantly. While private generation temporarily eases the pressures on the overall capacity for the sector, it also prevents the realization of economies of scale at a system level. Self-provision of energy appears more costly to companies (up to US$0.38 per KWh) than regional and even local tariffs (around US$0.22 and US$0.25 respectively on average).[1]
In 2007, electricity supplied to the grid was 833 GWh, shared among generators as follows:[2]
Generator
Electricity generated (GWh)
Guyana Power & Light (GPL)
551
Guyana Sugar Corporation
267
BERMINE/AMC
15
Source: Guyana Energy Agency, Statistics
While the consumption of electricity has increased substantially in the past few years, the installed generation and distribution capacity has increased at a lower pace. Obviously, self-generation has played an important role to fill the gap between consumption and generation of electricity.[1] The low income in the country, high cost per kilowatt hour and low level of Guyana's rural electrification leads to use of kerosene, wood and charcoal still playing an important factor.
Access to electricity is usually constrained by a country's level of income; however, in the case of Guyana, it is estimated that the electricity system in Guyana services only about 60 percent of the population, well below the level achieved by many regional peers. Similarly, while electrification is higher in coastal towns with a high industry concentration, there are vast areas of the country that appear underserved on this account. Even companies within regional access to the grid have to wait up to 99 days for connection.[1]
Service quality
Service interruptions
Reliability of electricity supply is low, and characterized by frequent and long outages (the highest incidence in Latin America and the Caribbean), load discharges and voltage variations. Poor reliability has been linked to dependence on old and obsolete equipment for power generation, underinvestment in the distribution grid, and lack of incentives for efficient provision of service. The poor quality of electricity supply becomes a key obstacle to growth. For example, companies’ losses attributable to energy outages are estimated to reach up to four percent of their total sales on average. Since large firms can afford to invest on own power generation equipment, these losses are smaller for them than for small firms.[1]
Distribution and transmission losses
In 2005, losses at the distribution level accounted for almost 40 percent of the energy generated, well above the 13.5% weighted average for LAC.[3] At a commercialization level, the utility has failed to enforce collection of bills, and to eradicate theft and corruption in under billing of the service.[1] GPL initiated a loss reduction plan in 2006, but by 2012 and on still faces continual challenges due to an "ingrained culture of electricity theft" and illegal connections.[4]
Responsibilities in the electricity sector
Policy and regulation
The legal, regulatory and institutional framework for the electricity sector includes:[1]
Office of the Prime Minister has principal policy-making and regulatory responsibility in the sector, including for granting licences to the public utilities and independent power producers and approval of development and expansion plans and of operating standards and performance targets for Guyana Power & Light (GPL), the principal supplier.[5]
Guyana Energy Agency (GEA) is the successor of the Guyana National Energy Authority (GEA). The GEA came into operation on 1 June 1998 by appointment of the Minister; it is responsible for all energy related matters. It is the mandate of the GEA "To ensure the rational and efficient use of imported petroleum-based energy sources, while encouraging, where economically feasible and environmentally acceptable, increased utilization of indigenous new and renewable sources of energy."
Public Utilities Commission is the multi-sector independent regulatory agency with authority to set rates, develop regulations and resolve disputes.
Generation, transmission and distribution
GPL dominates the electricity sector in Guyana as a vertically integrated government-owned utility with a monopolistic position on transmission and distribution, and a major stake (55%) in generation. The fragile financial position of GPL (due mainly to heavy system losses and high exposure to oil prices) constrains its investment capacity on essential maintenance and improvement of generation plants and transmission lines and grid. GPL faces financial difficulties due to a combination of net operating losses (i.e. tariffs below costs) and high commercial losses.[1]
Sector policy
The “Energy Policy of Guyana,” completed in 1994, advocates the replacement of imported petroleum, as far as possible, by indigenous renewable energy sources. Increased and more efficient use of domestic energy resources, primarily hydropower and bagasse for electricity generation, is envisaged to contribute significantly in this regard. A System Development Plan prepared by GPL in 2000 and its 2007-2011 Development and Expansion Programme reflected the official government policy of utilizing Guyana's renewable energy resources such as biomass and hydropower.
Meanwhile, the sector policy has also relied on the encouragement of private sector participation in building a healthy market-oriented economy. The policy envisaged that Independent Power Producers, which are investor-owned enterprises involved in power generation, will be encouraged. Additional policies are certainly needed to strengthen the energy sector.[1]
Renewable energy
Hydroelectricity
Guyana has a massive but yet unrealized potential for hydropower generation. Hydropower generation capacity has been estimated at 7,600 MW, that is, more than 30 times the current installed capacity in the country. Feasibility studies have been carried out for specific projects, but up to now, this potential remains untapped, mainly due to the considerable capital investments required to set up new power facilities. Indeed, beside the actual investment in generation plants, transmission lines would also be required, as most of the generation potential is inland, far from the zones of heaviest demand along the coast.[1]
The 100MWAmaila Falls Hydroelectric Project on the Kuribrong River was planned in 2011.[6] However, the project was far costlier than expected.[7]
Bagasse
Guyana has opportunities for electricity generation based on renewable resources linked to its large sugar industry. Electricity can be generated using bagasse, a by-product of sugar production, as basic fuel for thermoelectric facilities. Bagasse generation benefits from lower and more stable cost of than oil-based generation, as well as lower carbon emissions. A major bagasse co-generation project was implemented in 2006 by the Guyana Sugar Corporation. This project expanded power generation capacity by a further 25 MW (15 MW bagasse-based and 10 MW diesel-based) through an investment of US$27 million in a bagasse co-generation scheme. One third of the new capacity was allocated to the local grid through a power purchase agreement.[1]
Because of its climate, Guyana has a large potential for sugarcane crops, as well as a large sugar industry that could benefit from additional revenue opportunities such as energy generation. Even though it may not be feasible to meet Guyana's power demand with bagasse-based facilities, they can help to reduce the reliance of the sector on imported oil, while having a positive environmental impact through reduced carbon emissions. However, an important constraint to Guyana's bagasse-based generation potential is the lack of year-round supply of bagasse, which means that a substantial investment in storage and hauling would be required.[1]
Wind
The potential for wind-based generation is considered to be significant, although no comprehensive studies have been carried out. The Guyana Energy Agency reported a pilot project for a wind turbine in Guyana's east coast. This is a small project with expected energy savings of around US$30,000, and a payback period of 40 months. However, no major projects are being put in place. Other Caribbean countries such as Barbados and St. Lucia have promoted the use of such renewable energy sources through initiatives that include the removal of taxes and import tariffs on wind-farm equipment.[1]
History of the electricity sector
Electricity generation in Guyana was mainly done by large corporate entitles, for processing bauxite or sugar. Residential use was limited to larger cities, such as Georgetown and New Amsterdam and provided by independent companies. International Power Company of Canada operated in Guyana at the turn of the 20th century until assets were bought by Demerara Electric Company in 1925. This was then purchased by British Guiana Electricity Company in 1960, until 1966 when a nationalization policy turned over assets to the government. This company eventually became known as GPL. An attempt to privatize happened in 1992, but has since been returned to full government control.[8]
Tariffs
Electricity prices in Guyana are the third highest in the Caribbean due in large part to the country's reliance on expensive imported oil for electricity generation. At present the cost of fuel accounts for up to 60 percent of the total cost of electricity generation. Recent oil price hikes are passed on to consumers, as logically part of such increases in production inputs would be reflected in the price that consumers have to pay.[1]
An announced tariff reform will aim to rebalance the loads between industrial and domestic use through an increase in the domestic tariff, and a reduction of the industrial tariff. The new tariff structure will be implemented within a timeframe of 4 to 5 years after its approval by the Prime Minister.[1]
Reduction of Guyana's reliance on imported oil and the improvement of energy efficiency will require large investments that will impact on the fiscal stability of the country. The World Bank estimates that an increase in electricity intensity in Guyana at a level comparable with peer Caribbean countries would require investments over the next 10 years of between US$805 million and US$1,497 million (or between 10 and 19 percent of its GDP). However, under the current ownership structure of the system, this level of investment would pose a significant burden on the Government of Guyana, and would create considerable debt sustainability concerns.
Installed capacity is expected to increase by 62.5 MW in the period 2007-2009, as part of a US$120 million plan for future development managed by GPL. This plan also aims to address issues of distribution (through the construction of transmission lines and enhancement of the network) and efficiency.[1]
Private sector participation in the electricity sector
Independent Power Producers own and operate 45 percent of the installed generation capacity, which is thermoelectric. The table below shows the generation share compared with GPL:[1]
Company
Installed capacity (MW) (1)
Guyana Power and Light (GPL)
126
Omai Gold Mines Ltd. (OGM)
47
Guyana Sugar Corporation (GSC)
37
Linden Power Company (LPC)
8
Berbice Mining Enterprise (BERMINE)
4
Aroaima Mining Company (AMC)
4
Total
226
Source: World Bank, 2007
(1) In 2005-2007, only GPL, GSC, BERMINE and AMC have sold electricity to the grid.[2]
In the last few years, there have been formal efforts to enhance the relationships between private production and GPL; these include co-generation projects, plans for Power Purchase Agreements (PPAs), and explicit interest government interest in renewable energy projects. The expectations for capacity growth are reliant on the participation of these independent producers.
A significant enhancement of the regulatory framework will be required in order to ensure the viability of GPL as a potential private venture, and to encourage further private investment. While private participation is desirable, it may also not lead to significant improvements when regulatory capacity is weak and enforcement of contracts is insecure, as is the case in Guyana.[1]
Summary of private sector participation
Subsector
Private participation (%)
Generation
45
Transmission
0
Distribution
0
Electricity and the environment
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is the institution in charge of environmental issues in Guyana, focusing on effective environmental management and protection and the sustainable use of Guyana's natural resources.[9]
Guyana emitted 1.58 million tons of CO2 in 2005, which corresponds to 2.07 tCO2 per capita annually.[10]
Currently (September 2008), there in one CDM registered project in the electricity sector in Guyana, the Skeldon Bagasse Cogeneration Project.[11] Average emission reductions for this project have been estimated at 44,733 tCO2e.[12]
External assistance
Inter-American Development Bank
The Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) is supporting several projects in the electricity sector:
Unserved Areas Electrification Program: supported through a US$27.4 million loan approved in 2002, it aims to accelerate electricity sector development and extension of service to currently unserved consumers.
Power Sector Support Program: through a US$12 million loan approved in December 2007, this program aims to support the development of the power sector by means of promoting reduction of electricity losses, while including reforms and strengthening measures to the regulatory framework, strengthening and development of the power utility provider, and social awareness programs, among others, in order to achieve sustainable solutions.
Strengthening Electricity Sector Regulation in Support of Private Investment: technical assistance (July 2008)
Expanding Bioenergy Opportunities in Guyana: US$675,500 technical assistance aims to improve the capacity of the Government to better respond to project proposals related to non-traditional energy sources, with particular emphasis on bioenergy and to increase capacity within the Government in relation to bio-energy technology and research.
India is the third largest producer of electricity in the world. During the fiscal year (FY) 2021–22, the total electricity generation in the country was 1,719 TWh, of which 1,484 TWh was generated by utilities.
The Tanzania Electric Supply Company Limited (TANESCO) is a Tanzanian parastatal organisation established in 1964. It is wholly owned by the government of Tanzania. The Ministry of Energy and Minerals regulates the operations of TANESCO.
The electricity sector in Honduras has been shaped by the dominance of a vertically integrated utility; an incomplete attempt in the early 1990s to reform the sector; the increasing share of thermal generation over the past two decades; the poor financial health of the state utility Empresa Nacional de Energía Eléctrica (ENEE); the high technical and commercial losses in transmission and distribution; and the low electric coverage in rural areas
A feed-in tariff is a policy mechanism designed to accelerate investment in renewable energy technologies by offering long-term contracts to renewable energy producers. This means promising renewable energy producers an above-market price and providing price certainty and long-term contracts that help finance renewable energy investments. Typically, FITs award different prices to different sources of renewable energy in order to encourage development of one technology over another. For example, technologies such as wind power and solar PV are awarded a higher price per kWh than tidal power. FITs often include a "degression": a gradual decrease of the price or tariff in order to follow and encourage technological cost reductions.
The electricity sector in Colombia is dominated by large hydropower generation (65%) and thermal generation (35%). Despite the country's large potential for new renewable energy technologies, this potential has been barely tapped. A 2001 law designed to promote alternative energies lacks certain key provisions to achieve this objective, such as feed-in tariffs, and has had little impact so far. Large hydropower and thermal plants dominate the current expansion plans. The construction of a transmission line with Panama, which will link Colombia with Central America, is underway.
The electricity sector in Bolivia is dominated by the state-owned ENDE Corporation, although the private Bolivian Power Company is also a major producer of electricity. ENDE had been unbundled into generation, transmission and distribution and privatized in the 1990s, but most of the sector was re-nationalized in 2010 (generation) and 2012.
The electricity sector in Argentina constitutes the third largest power market in Latin America. It relies mostly on thermal generation and hydropower generation (36%). The prevailing natural gas-fired thermal generation is at risk due to the uncertainty about future gas supply.
As of August 2020 Chile had diverse sources of electric power: for the National Electric System, providing over 99% of the county's electric power, hydropower represented around 26.7% of its installed capacity, biomass 1.8%, wind power 8.8%, solar 12.1%, geothermal 0.2%, natural gas 18.9%, coal 20.3%, and petroleum-based capacity 11.3%. Prior to that time, faced with natural gas shortages, Chile began in 2007 to build its first liquefied natural gas terminal and re-gasification plant at Quintero near the capital city of Santiago to secure supply for its existing and upcoming gas-fired thermal plants. In addition, it had engaged in the construction of several new hydropower and coal-fired thermal plants. But by July 2020 91% of the new capacity under construction was of renewable power, 46.8% of the total solar and 25.6% wind, with most of the remainder hydro.
As required by the Constitution, the electricity sector is federally owned, with the Federal Electricity Commission essentially controlling the whole sector; private participation and foreign companies are allowed to operate in the country only through specific service contracts. Attempts to reform the sector have traditionally faced strong political and social resistance in Mexico, where subsidies for residential consumers absorb substantial fiscal resources.
The electricity sector in Peru has experienced large improvements in the past 15 years. Access to electricity has increased from 45% in 1990 to 96.4% in 2018, while service quality and efficiency of service provision improved. These improvements were made possible through privatizations following reforms initiated in 1992. At the same time, electricity tariffs have remained in line with the average for Latin America.
Nicaragua is the country in Central America with the lowest electricity generation, as well as the lowest percentage of population with access to electricity. The unbundling and privatization process of the 1990s did not achieve the expected objectives, resulting in very little generation capacity added to the system. This, together with its high dependence on oil for electricity generation, led to an energy crisis in 2006 from which the country has not fully recovered yet.
El Salvador's energy sector is largerly focused on renwables. El Salvador is the largest producer of geothermal energy in Central America. Except for hydroelectric generation, which is almost totally owned and operated by the public company CEL, the rest of the generation capacity is in private hands. With demand expected to grow at a rate of 5% in the coming years, the Government's 2007 National Energy Strategy identified several hydroelectric and geothermal projects as the best option to meet demand in the future and to diversify the country's energy mix.
The largely government owned electricity sector in Haiti referred to as Électricité d'Haïti (ED'H for "Haiti Electric Utility", faced a deep crisis characterized by dramatic shortages and the lowest coverage of electricity in the Western Hemisphere in 2006. with only about 38.5% of the population having regular access to electricity. In addition, Haiti's large share of thermal generation makes the country especially vulnerable to rising and unstable oil prices.
The power sector in the Dominican Republic has traditionally been, and still is, a bottleneck to the country's economic growth. A prolonged electricity crisis and ineffective remedial measures have led to a vicious cycle of regular blackouts, high operating costs of the distribution companies, large losses including electricity theft through illegal connections, high retail tariffs to cover these inefficiencies, low bill collection rates, a significant fiscal burden for the government through direct and indirect subsidies, and very high costs for consumers as many of them have to rely on expensive alternative self-generated electricity. According to the World Bank, the revitalization of the Dominican economy depends greatly on a sound reform of the sector.
Brazil has the largest electricity sector in Latin America. Its capacity at the end of 2021 was 181,532 MW. The installed capacity grew from 11,000 MW in 1970 with an average yearly growth of 5.8% per year. Brazil has the largest capacity for water storage in the world, being dependent on hydroelectricity generation capacity, which meets over 60% of its electricity demand. The national grid runs at 60 Hz and is powered 83% from renewable sources. This dependence on hydropower makes Brazil vulnerable to power supply shortages in drought years, as was demonstrated by the 2001–2002 energy crisis.
Paraguay is one of the few countries in Latin America that has maintained an integrated public monopoly on electricity. Hydropower comprises nearly 100 percent of electricity in Paraguay; 90 percent of generated energy is exported, with neighboring Argentina and Brazil receiving the majority. Paraguay is one of the world's largest electricity net exporters.
The utility electricity sector in Bangladesh has one national grid with an installed capacity of 25,700 MW as of June 2022. Bangladesh's energy sector is not up to the mark. However, per capita energy consumption in Bangladesh is considered higher than the production. Electricity was introduced to the country on 7th of December, 1901 under British rule.
The electricity sector of Uruguay has traditionally been based on domestic hydropower along with thermal power plants, and reliant on imports from Argentina and Brazil at times of peak demand. Over the last 10 years, investments in renewable energy sources such as wind power and solar power allowed the country to cover in early 2016 94.5% of its electricity needs with renewable energy sources.
Most of Kenya's electricity is generated by renewable energy sources. Access to reliable, affordable, and sustainable energy is one of the 17 main goals of the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals. Development of the energy sector is also critical to help Kenya achieve the goals in Kenya Vision 2030 to become a newly industrializing, middle-income country. With an installed power capacity of 2,819 MW, Kenya currently generates 826 MW hydroelectric power, 828 geothermal power, 749 MW thermal power, 331 MW wind power, and the rest from solar and biomass sources. Kenya is the largest geothermal energy producer in Africa and also has the largest wind farm on the continent. In March 2011, Kenya opened Africa's first carbon exchange to promote investments in renewable energy projects. Kenya has also been selected as a pilot country under the Scaling-Up Renewable Energy Programmes in Low Income Countries Programme to increase deployment of renewable energy solutions in low-income countries. Despite significant strides in renewable energy development, about a quarter of the Kenyan population still lacks access to electricity, necessitating policy changes to diversify the energy generation mix and promote public-private partnerships for financing renewable energy projects.
The electricity sector of Armenia includes several companies engaged in electricity generation and distribution. Generation is carried out by multiple companies both state-owned and private. In 2020 less than a quarter of energy in Armenia was electricity.
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