Free-roaming horse management in North America

Last updated

Mustangs in Wyoming Wild Mustangs in Wyoming.jpg
Mustangs in Wyoming

Management of free-roaming feral and semi-feral horses, (colloquially called "wild") on various public or tribal lands in North America is accomplished under the authority of law, either by the government of jurisdiction or efforts of private groups. [1] In western Canada, management is a provincial matter, with several associations and societies helping to manage wild horses in British Columbia and Alberta. [1] In Nova Scotia, and various locations in the United States, management is under the jurisdiction of various federal agencies. The largest population of free-roaming horses is found in the Western United States. Here, most of them are protected under the Wild and Free-Roaming Horses and Burros Act of 1971 (WFRH&BA), and their management is primarily undertaken by the Bureau of Land Management (BLM), but also by the U. S. Forest Service (USFS) [lower-alpha 1]

Contents

Because free-roaming horses multiply quickly, able to increase their numbers by up to 20% per year, all North American herds are managed in some fashion in an attempt to keep the population size at a level deemed appropriate. In the western United States, implementation of the WFRH&BA has been controversial. The law requires that "appropriate management levels" (AML) be set and maintained on public rangelands and that excess horses be removed and offered for adoption. If no adoption demand exists, animals are to be humanely destroyed or sold "without limitation" which allows the horses to be sent to slaughter. Since continuous Congressional fiscal mandates have prevented euthanizing healthy animals or allowing sales that result in slaughter, and more animals are removed from the range than can be adopted or sold, excess horses are sent to short- and long-term holding facilities, which are at capacity. The population of free-roaming horses has increased significantly since 2005, triple the AML and at the numbers estimated to be on the range in 1930. In Missouri, a herd on public land is maintained at 50 by a nonprofit according to law signed by President Bill Clinton. [2]

History

While the horse evolved in North America, it became extinct between 8,000 and 10,000 years ago. [3] There are multiple theories for this extinction, ranging from climate change to the arrival of humans. [4] [5] [6]

Horses returned to the Americas beginning with Christopher Columbus in 1493. They also arrived on the mainland with Cortés in 1519. These were mostly Iberian horses now described as "Spanish type." [7] [8] The horse also became an important part of Native American culture. [9] The horse population expanded rapidly. [10] Additional European settlers brought a variety of horse types to the Americas, and from all sources, some animals eventually escaped human control and became feral. [11]

Modern studies have identified a few modern herds, the Sulphur Springs herd, the Cerbat herd, the Pryor Mountains herd, and the Kiger herd as retaining the original phenotype of horses brought to New World by the Spanish. [12]

Eastern Seaboard

Sable Island

Sable Island Horses SableHorses.jpg
Sable Island Horses

Since 1960, the horses of Sable Island, unlike those in the rest of Canada, were protected under the Sable Island Regulations section of the Canadian Shipping Act. [13] Following the designation of Sable Island as a National Park Reserve in December 2013, the horses are now fully protected by Parks Canada as wildlife under the Canada National Parks Act and the National Parks Wildlife Regulations. Parks Canada considers the Sable Island horses as 'naturalized wildlife’ and, as such, they are being managed as a taxon equal to other species living on the island. [14]

United States

In the U.S., there are free-roaming herds on some of the barrier islands along the East Coast, notably Chincoteague Ponies, Banker horses and Cumberland Island horses. Most of these herds are managed by the National Park Service with assistance from various organizations. [lower-alpha 2] Their populations are held stable through use of contraception and removal and adoption.[ citation needed ]

Western Canada

Management history

In terms of the population of free-roaming horses in historic times, and today, it is estimated to be less than 2,000 horses. Herds are found mainly on the Chilcotin Plateau of British Columbia, the Eastern Slopes of the Rocky Mountains in Alberta, and in Saskatchewan's Bronson Forest. There are approximately 800-1000 free-roaming horses in British Columbia. [16] In 2014, the Alberta Government provided an official count of 880 for the horses of the Eastern Slopes of the Rockies [17] and there are thought to be less than 100 horses in the Bronson Forest of Saskatchewan. [18]

The free-roaming horses of Western Canada have been subjected to repeated attempts to reduce or eradicate the population. As early as 1896 the Government of British Columbia passed the Wild Horse Extermination Act that made it lawful for anyone licensed by the Government to shoot or otherwise destroy an unbranded stallion over the age of twenty months east of the Cascade Mountains. [19] In the 40 years following implementation of the bounty system in B.C. in 1924, it is estimated that about 15,000 horses were killed. [20] In a 1925 roundup in British Columbia, horses were driven into corrals and offered for sale at $5 a head; the thousands that were left over were shot. At the same time the Government offered a bounty of $2.50 for a pair of horse ears and a scalp. [21]

In 1943, an export market developed in Europe and the United States and thousands of free-roaming horses were rounded up in Western Canada and shipped for both food consumption and domestic use. [22] In Alberta, some roundups were done as far back as the 1950s, and a horse permit system was in effect from 1962 to 1972 when about 2000 horses were removed over the span of the ten years. [23] In 1994, the entire herd of over 1,200 horses, which at the time was the largest population of free-roaming horses in Canada, was removed from the Suffield military base on the Alberta-Saskatchewan border. [24] In 1993, Alberta introduced the Horse Capture Regulation [25] under the Stray Animals Act which regulates the capture of wild horses, with between 25 and 35 horses being captured each year. [13] However, during the 2011-12 capture season a record 216 horses were captured in Alberta. [23] The Horse Capture Regulation expired on June 30, 2017, and was renewed with effectively no changes.

Provincial management

In Canada, except for Sable Island, there is no federal protection for free-roaming horses because Environment Canada considers horses to be introduced foreign animals, not native; therefore they do not qualify for protection under the Species at Risk Act . [26] Instead, they are protected and managed through provincial jurisdiction. [1] Feral horses are considered domestic livestock, not wildlife, under Alberta's Stray Animals Act. [26] In British Columbia horses are controlled for range management purposes through the Grazing Act. [26] [27] In Saskatchewan the one remaining free-roaming herd is protected under The Protection of the Wild Ponies of the Bronson Forest Act (Saskatchewan) [28]

Alberta Mountain Horses or "Wildies" of Alberta

A small herd of "Wildies" in the foothills of Alberta in winter. Wild Horses Alberta.jpg
A small herd of "Wildies" in the foothills of Alberta in winter.

Free-roaming horses on the Eastern Slopes of the Rocky Mountains in Alberta are known locally as the Alberta Mountain Horse or "Wildie" (French : Cheval de Montagne de l'Alberta). On November 1, 2014, the non-profit advocacy group Wild Horses of Alberta Society (WHOAS) entered into a five-year agreement with the Alberta provincial government's Alberta Environment and Sustainable Resource Development (ESRD) that has now come to an end. [29] This agreement authorized WHOAS to effectively and humanely manage the feral horse population in a 490 km2 portion of the Sundre Equine Zone on the Eastern Slopes. By November 2017 WHOAS had completed the first three years of a selective contraception program using Zona Stat-H, a form of Porcine Zona Pellucida vaccine, or PZP. WHOAS has vaccinated approximately 82 mares by free-range field darting, some of these mares have received booster shots. [30] [31] With one shot a mare is 70-80% less likely to conceive for the 1st year, depending on the time of year in which she is vaccinated. This increases to 90% with the administration of a booster shot. The contraceptive effects wear off with the chance of conception increasing every year post-vaccination. [32] WHOAS also runs a 20-acre horse rescue facility west of the Town of Sundre for those horses that run into trouble and have to be removed from the wild. The rescue facility will also take in orphaned foals to be raised, gentled and adopted out. [33] In early 2018 the Alberta Government agreed to consider proposals from other not-for-profit groups to conduct PZP contraceptive programs in other areas of concern to maintain the population at manageable levels. [34] If successful, these programs will replace Government captures and culls. [1]

Wild ponies of the Bronson Forest, Saskatchewan

The last known herd of free-roaming horses in Saskatchewan inhabit the Bronson Forest in a remote area of northwestern Saskatchewan about 170 km north of Lloydminster near the Alberta-Saskatchewan border. In 2005, the wild ponies of the Bronson Forest numbered around 125 animals, but by 2009 many of the animals had been shot by a person or persons unknown and the herd had been reduced to 37 animals. [35] [36] [37] The shootings brought public attention to the plight of the horses and in the fall 2009 legislative session, Tim McMillan, MLA for Lloydminster, Saskatchewan introduced a private members bill in the Legislative Assembly of Saskatchewan. [36] Bill No. 606 received royal assent on December 3, 2009, and The Protection of the Wild Ponies of the Bronson Forest Act (Saskatchewan) came into immediate effect. [28] The Act makes it an offense to "in any way willfully molest, interfere with, hurt, capture or kill any of the wild horses of the Bronson Forest". It was hoped that the passing of the Act would protect the wild ponies of the Bronson Forest so that they would continue to provide both a living and historical tourist attraction as well as highlight the Bronson Forest for the future and also recognizes the value and unique nature of the wild ponies of the Bronson Forest. [28]

Western United States

Introduced vs. Reintroduced Species

In making the determination to protect and manage free-roaming horses on some western Federal lands in 1971 [lower-alpha 3] Congress declared them to be "living symbols of the historic and pioneer spirit of the West (that) contribute to the diversity of life forms within the Nation". However, their ecological status in the western landscape is under considerable debate.

Some free-roaming horses advocates believe "they have a place on the Western landscape as a reintroduced native species." [38] They argue that the horses have reinhabited an ecological niche vacated when they went extinct in North America 10,000 years ago, [39] claiming that the 10,000 year gap is irrelevant. [40] However, the National Academy of Science refutes that claim, stating that because of the large changes that have taken place in the North American environment in the past 10,000 years: "It cannot be argued that ecological voids dating back 10 millennia exist and that introduced forms are restoring some kind of earlier integrity." [39]

Researchers Jay F. Kirkpatrick and Patricia M. Fazio have publicly advanced the argument that free-roaming horses should be legally classified as "wild" rather than "feral" asserting that, due to the presence of Equus ferus on the North American continent until the end of the Pleistocene era, horses were once a native species and that "the two key elements for defining an animal as a native species are where it originated and whether or not it coevolved with its habitat." Their position is that E. caballus did both in North America and thus "should enjoy protection as a form of native wildlife." [41] In contrast, Bob Garrot, director of the Fish and Wildlife Ecology and Management Program at Montana State University takes the opposite position, explaining, "(A)re they native? Are they the same critters that were there 10,000 years ago? Well, no they aren’t. Those horses are not the same horses that were here in the Pleistocene. The Western landscapes are not the same landscapes, neither are the plant and animal communities." [38]

The Wildlife Society takes the position that free-roaming horses are an invasive species: "Since native North American horses went extinct, the western United States has become more arid and many of the horses’ natural predators, such as the American lion and saber-toothed cat, have also gone extinct, notably changing the ecosystem and ecological roles horses and burros play." [42] According to the National Research Council, most free-roaming horse herds are outside of mountain lion and wolf habitat, the two modern species discussed as predators that could potentially control population growth. [43] [lower-alpha 4] However a study conducted in 1987-1997 and published in 2001 that is cited in the National Research Council report, indicated that mountain lions could influence the population growth of herds found in mountain lion habitat, but only if there is also a large enough deer population, the lion's natural food source, to maintain a dense lion population. [46] [lower-alpha 5]

According to a 2021 genetic study, ancient wild horses as well as the wooly mammoth were still present in the Yukon as recently as 5,700 years ago (mid-Holocene), [47] This and related studies are used to support the thesis that modern horses are closely enough related to their North American ancestors to be treated as native. [48]

Management history

Because free-roaming horse populations are not self-limiting, first non-government then government entities have taken on the task of managing their numbers. In 1930, there was an estimated population of between 50,000-150,000 feral horses in the western United States. [49] They were almost completely confined to the remaining General Land Office (GLO) administered public lands and National Forest rangelands in the 11 contingent Western States. [50] Some horses in Nevada originated from escaped Comstock Lode miners, [51] other horses across the west escaped from various settlers or ranch horses that had been turned out to forage when not in use. [52] Some were bred up for use as cavalry horses. [53] A few populations retained centuries-old Spanish horse genetics. [38] Most were managed as "mavericks" or "unbranded stock" under estray laws of the various states, [54] and efforts to control their population were left to "mustangers" and local ranchers. [55] Population control was hampered due to the difficulty of discerning which horses were truly feral and which were owned by ranchers, and in the process, sometimes branded horses were shot. [56]

After decades of unregulated cattle, sheep and horse grazing, the range was overgrazed and deteriorating, which led to the passage of the 1934 Taylor Grazing Act. [57] Its purpose was to "stop injury to the public lands by preventing over-grazing and soil deterioration; to provide for orderly use, improvement and development; to stabilize the livestock industry dependent upon the Public Range." [58] The U.S. Grazing Service was established to administer the Act. [57] The Grazing Service began establishing grazing fees and determined that the fee for grazing horses would be double that for cattle and sheep. [50] As a result, ranchers, many of whom had gone broke during the Great Depression, [50] frequently ignored the Act and simply released their unpermitted horses on the range. The Grazing Service and the US Forest Service began to pay contractors to assist in rounding up the free-roaming horses. [59] Ranchers were given notice that a roundup would occur in a particular area and to remove their unpermitted horses. They would do so, but after the agencies had swept through and rounded up the horses still estray, the ranchers would return their horses to the range. As a result, most ranges were simply closed to horse grazing altogether. [59] Any horses rounded up were either considered estrays or, if branded, in trespass. A rancher could reclaim his horses if he paid the back fees and fines, but in practice, many were relinquished. The contractors were allowed to take possession of the horses they captured, to dispose of as they saw fit. [60] Tens of thousands of horses were removed from the range between 1934 and 1940. [60] With the outbreak of World War II (WWII), the government efforts to remove the horses stopped. [50]

Velma Johnston, "Wild Horse Annie Annie3VelmaJohnston.jpg
Velma Johnston, "Wild Horse Annie

In 1946, the Grazing Service and the GLO were combined to create the Bureau of Land Management. [61] In the same time period, a surplus of airplanes after WWII made aircraft widely available. The BLM would issue permits for airplane use, and mustangers used them and other motorized vehicles to capture the free roaming horses. In the 1950s, Velma B. Johnston, who became known as "Wild Horse Annie", [62] led the push for federal protection of the horses and burros. [55] By 1958, there were 14,810 to 29,620 free-roaming horses remaining in the 11 western states. [63] [lower-alpha 6] A year later, the first federal feral horse protection law was passed. This statute, popularly known as the "Wild Horse Annie Act", [55] prohibited the use of aircraft or motor vehicles for hunting "wild, unbranded" horses or polluting water sources. [64]

Passage of the Wild Horse Annie Act did not alleviate the concerns of advocates for free-roaming horses, who continued to lobby for federal rather than state control over these horses. [55] At the same time, ownership of the free-roaming herds was contentious, and ranchers continued to use airplanes to gather them. [65] Federal agencies also continued to try to eliminate horses from areas where they were perceived to be causing resource damage. In 1962, public pressure lead to the establishment of the Nevada Wild Horse Range, [66] and in 1968, the Pryor Mountains Wild Horse Range was established. In 1969, the National Mustang Association, headquartered in Utah, [67] persuaded Senator Frank Moss to introduce a bill (S. 2166) to protect the remaining mustangs of Spanish descent under the Endangered Species Preservation Act of 1966. However, since the bill also called for the removal from public lands of all non-Spanish horses, it came under heavy opposition. [68] Federal protection for all free-roaming horses was ultimately accomplished by the Wild and Free-Roaming Horses and Burros Act of 1971(WFRHBA). [62] The bill specifically stated: "A person claiming ownership of a horse or burro on the public lands shall be entitled to recover it only if recovery is permissible under the branding and estray laws of the State in which the animal is found." [69] This eventually alleviated the problem of horses being rounded up under the auspices of belonging to local ranchers, but right after the law passed, many ranchers claimed all the horses on their allotments, and set about rounding them up. [70]

WFRH&BA management

The WFRH&BA called for management of free-roaming horses to be "designed to achieve and maintain a thriving natural ecological balance on the public lands." [69] However, there are few non-anthropogenic means that limit their population growth and keep their numbers in balance. [71] In 1972, the BLM approached Jay F. Kirkpatrick and John W. Turner and requested that they find a contraceptive that could be used to check the population growth of the free-roaming horses. Their efforts ultimately lead to the development of Porcine zona pellucida or PZP, a contraceptive developed from the ovaries of slaughtered pigs. [72] However, the treatment wasn't ready for field trial until 1992. [73] Soon after passage of the WFRH&BA, the agencies began rounding up horses by paying contractors to use saddle horses to chase them into traps for removal. [70] In 1976, the BLM officially established an "Adopt-a-Horse" program, to place excess horses that had been removed, but had no authority to pass title to the adopters. [74] [lower-alpha 7] By 1977, there were 60,000 animals on the range, [75] the lower end of numbers estimated to be on the range in 1930. In 1976, the Federal Land Policy and Management Act (FLMPA) authorized the agencies to use helicopters to push the horses into traps. [69] Unlike airplanes, helicopters can push horses along at a trot rather than a gallop, [76] and the BLM asserts that the helicopter roundups are humane. [77] Using them is still controversial. The American Wild Horse Campaign claims that the helicopter roundups are "costly, cruel and inhumane." [78]

In 1978, the WFRH&BA was amended in the Public Rangelands Improvement Act requiring the agencies to set "Appropriate Management Levels" (AML) and remove excess wild horses. [69] AMLs for each Herd Management Area began to be established through the Land Use Planning Process. [79] The FLPMA required the BLM to manage public lands under the principles of "multiple use and sustained yield," thus livestock grazing and wildlife habitat are managed along with free-roaming horses and burros. [80] When the BLM develops land use plans, its official position is that it "will consider wild horses and burros in a manner similar to the way it treats other resource values (e.g., cultural, historic, wildlife, and scenic, as distinguished from authorized commercial land uses, such as livestock grazing or timber harvesting)." [77] As of 2018, the current total maximum AML for both horses and burros is 26,715, [81] down from 30,158 in 1986. Advocates for protection of free-ranging horses argued that the AML was set too low, particularly in contrast to the forage allocated for cattle. [82] However, Congress has not suggested that AML be raised, but instead has directed the BLM to look into more effective forms of population control. [83]

From 1971 through 2001, the BLM removed 193,000 horses and burros from the federal rangelands, [lower-alpha 8] but still could not maintain the populations at AML. [84] The 1978 amendment had provided guidelines for adopting out horses. authorizing passing title to adopters and the BLM managed to place 189,300 [lower-alpha 9] of the 193,000 animals in private care. But, in addition to requiring the BLM to set AMLs, the 1978 amendment required that, "excess wild free roaming horses and burros for which an adoption demand by qualified individuals does not exist to be destroyed in the most humane and cost efficient manner possible." [69] BLM instead initiated a self-imposed moratorium on destroying excess unadoptable animals in 1982, [85] instead, starting in 1984, placing 20,000 horses with large-scale adopters who took a minimum of 100 horses each. Non-compliance for approving and monitoring those adoptions caused inhumane treatment and death to hundreds of the horses and many adopters sold thousands of them to slaughterhouses after gaining title. BLM terminated the large scale program in 1988 after negative publicity and pressure from the Congress [86] and from 1988 until 2004, Congress prevented the Bureau from destroying excess healthy unadopted animals [79] by stating, in the Department of the Interior's annual appropriations acts, that "appropriations herein shall not be available for the destruction of healthy unadopted wild horses and burros in the care of the Bureau of Land Management or its contractors." [84] As an alternative, since 1988, the BLM began sending excess horses to "sanctuaries". The first sanctuary was the "Institute of Range and the American Mustang" in the Black Hills, which the BLM paid to maintain 1,650 horses. In 1989, Congress directed the BLM to establish more sanctuaries. Sanctuaries were meant to "encourage tourism and economic development in the area as well as public understanding of BLM'S wild horse program" [87] but as time went on the concept evolved into "long term holding." [84] The long term holding facilities are generally located in the Midwest where conditions are more conducive to the welfare of the horses than the desert ranges, and the life-span of the horses is greatly increased than in the wild. [85]

On November 17, 2008, at a public meeting held by the BLM to discuss the fate of horses in long-term holding, [88] Madeleine Pickens announced her plans to buy a one million acre (4,000 km2) tract at an undisclosed location "in the West" and establish a sanctuary for the horses, which she would adopt and maintain at private expense. [89] However, shortly thereafter she stated that the recession forced many of the donors she hoped would help her pay for the venture backed out, and she requested the BLM pay her a yearly stipend of $500 per horse to maintain the horses. The BLM responded that it was not possible to enter into the contract she requested. [90] However, the BLM did put out invitations for Pickens and others who wished to provide lands to maintain horses for the BLM in "Eco_Sanctuaries" to submit proposals for evaluation. [91] Pickens did submit a proposal to maintain horses on private and public lands in Nevada, that the BLM agreed to evaluate [92] but evaluation of the proposal stalled after scoping found issues that have yet to resolved. [93] However, there are currently two sanctuaries in Wyoming maintaining horses for the BLM on private lands. [94] [95] [96]

In 2001, BLM committed to reducing the population to AML by 2005 by increasing the number of animals removed each year. From 2001 until 2008, over 74,000 animals were removed, but with adoption rates having dropped 36% since the 1990s, only 46,400 were adopted out. [97] In 2004, Congress approved an amendment to the WFRH&BA, called the "Burns Amendment" or "Burns Rider," [lower-alpha 10] which repealed the policy of the preceding 22 years by not including the prohibition against euthanizing healthy horses in the 2005 Interior Appropriations Act and allowed excess wild horses to be sold without limitation if not adopted. [98] [lower-alpha 11] This resulted in public outcry. [100] From fiscal year 2006 through 2009—though there was no restriction on selling or euthanizing excess horses—BLM chose not to exercise either option due to "concerns over public and Congressional reaction to the large-scale slaughter of thousands of healthy horses." [101] [lower-alpha 12] By FY 2010, implementation of the Burns Amendment was further curtailed by the "Rahall Rider," which reinserted into Interior Appropriations the prohibition on money being spent to euthanize healthy horses, while also prohibiting funds from being used to sell horses to parties’ intent on sending them to slaughter. [103] [lower-alpha 13] Though not directly repealing the Burns Amendment, the Rahall Rider has been added to every appropriations bill from FY 2010 through FY 2018. [105] [106] To comply with these annual restrictions, the BLM purchase contract has a statement prohibiting purchasers from processing horses into commercial products. [107]

As a result, the BLM now maintains excess horses in long- and short-term holding facilities. [81] More animals are removed from the range than can be adopted or sold. As a result, by June 2008, 30,088 excess animals were held in captivity, up from 9,807 in 2001. [97] That same year, the BLM predicted that the "number of wild horses on the range would reach about 50,000, or about 80 percent over AML, by 2012." [101] In February 2007, BLM estimated it was 1,000 animals over AML, the closest it had ever been, but researchers had found that BLM's census methods "consistently undercounted" them. [97] After 2008, adoption numbers began to drop. [108] By 2014, just over 2000 animals a year were being adopted. [109] The BLM continued removing large numbers of horses, but by 2013, had no more space in long-term or short term holding facilities for the excess, [110] and removal rates dropped from 8,255 in 2012 to 1,857 in 2014. In a 2014 report by the House Appropriations Committee it was stated "The horse and burro management program in its current state is unsustainable and the Committee cannot afford to perpetuate the situation for much longer." [111]

In both the 2015 and 2016 budgets the Rahall language to prevent euthanizing and selling without limitation excess horses and to continue to allow funds to be used for long term holding. [112] [lower-alpha 14] However, the amount allocated did not allow the BLM to conduct sufficient gathers to achieve the Senate's directive, and on September 9, 2016, the BLM Wild Horse Resource Advisory Board (RAC) recommended the BLM be allowed to start euthanizing or selling without limitation horses to "alleviate space in the holding facilities to save the BLM more money in which they could use for gathers and start relieving some of these impacted rangelands." [114] In response to the RAC recommendation, the Humane Society of the United States (HSUS) refuted the idea that the BLM should remove horses to achieve AML and instead implement fertility control. [115]

In January 2017, Freedom Caucus member Representative Morgan Griffith from Virginia wanted to implement the Holman Rule, that would slash individual pay of government workers to $1, citing the $80 million cost of administering the free-roaming horse program as one among many examples of misspent government resources. [116] Instead of implementing the RAC recommendation the Rahall language was again included in the budget bill which finally passed on May 5, 2017, to manage spending until the end of the FY2017, but the increased Congressional attention on the costs of the program, [117] The explanatory statement accompanying the budget reflected increased Congressional attention on the costs of the program, and required the BLM to prepare and submit: "a plan to achieve long-term sustainable populations on the range in a humane manner" giving the agency 180 days, until early November, to submit the plan (hereafter referred to as the "report"). [118]

On May 23, 2017, President Donald Trump released the FY2018 Interior Budget in Brief which, while reducing the free-roaming horse budget by ten million dollars, "proposes to give BLM the tools it needs to manage this program in a more cost-effective manner, including the ability to conduct sales without limitation. The budget proposed to eliminate appropriations language restricting BLM from using all of the management options authorized in the Wild Free-Roaming Horse and Burro Act. The remainder of the funding decrease would be achieved by reducing gathers, reducing birth control treatments, and other activities deemed inconsistent with prudent management of the program." [119]

Despite Senate prodding on November 20, 2017, stating: "The Committee looks forward to the release of the report...and is hopeful that it will contain a range of humane and politically viable options that can collectively be implemented to drastically reduce on-range populations and a variety of methods to limit unsustainable on-range reproduction", [83] the BLM failed to submit the report, so Congress declined to remove the Rahall language from the 2018 budget, stating: "Until the Department provides a comprehensive plan and any corresponding legislative proposals to the appropriate authorizing committees, the Committees will maintain the existing prohibitions and reduce the resources available for the program" and gave the BLM until April 22, 2018, to submit the report. [120] [lower-alpha 15] On April 26, 2017, the BLM submitted the report as required, [121] providing several options for Congress to consider, including fertility control as recommended by the HSUS, mostly consisting of permanent sterilization. [81] In the meantime, the Department of Interior budget request for fiscal year 2019 had again requested that the restrictions of the Rahall amendment not be included in the 2019 budget [122]

The report stated that at the end of 2017, there was an estimated 83,000 wild horses and burros, or three times AML, on public lands. [81] Congress has yet to act on the information.

Horses of Placitas Wild Horses of Placitas.jpg
Horses of Placitas

Horses captured under the authority of the WFRH%BA are freeze branded on the left side of the neck by the BLM, using the International Alpha Angle System, a system of angles and alpha-symbols that cannot be altered. The brands begin with a symbol indicating the registering organization, in this case the U.S. Government, then two stacked figures indicating the individual horse's date of birth, then the individual registration number. [123] Mustangs kept in sanctuaries are also marked on the left hip with four inch-high Arabic numerals that are also the last four digits of the freeze brand on the neck. [124]

Other Western US herds

Since the WFRH&BA applies only to unclaimed horses that were free roaming on lands managed by the BLM and USFS at the time of passage of the Act, [69] there are a number of other free-roaming horse herds in the west, including:

Horses vs. Wildlife and Livestock on Public Lands

Much of the debate as to whether free-roaming horses are an Introduced vs. Reintroduced species is in the context of the priority of use of the resources of public lands the horses should have in relation to wildlife and livestock. [1] [132] [133] The need for more sustainable management is generally agreed upon because of the degradation of the western range in areas inhabited by free-roaming horses, [134] [135] but what and how management occurs is hotly debated. Advocates for free-roaming horses suggest reducing the numbers of sheep and cattle permitted to graze on public lands to allocate more resources for horses, ranching interests hold the opposite, wishing to see horse numbers maintained at AML, while wildlife advocates want to prioritize native species over both domestic livestock and free-roaming horses. [38]

Cattle and sheep ranchers and others who support the position of the livestock industry tend to favor a lower priority of feral horses than private livestock for use of public land, and argue that the horses degrade the public rangelands. [133] The numbers of cows that can graze the range decreases as the number of horses increases. [136]

However the debate as to how much horses compete with cows for forage is multifaceted. Ruminates such as cattle and sheep, with their multi-chambered stomachs, can extract more energy from their feed, and thus require less, but more high quality forage, such as leaves and forbs. Horses are evolutionarily adapted to survive in an ecological niche dominated by "fibrous herbage" (i.e. low quality grass forage) due to being "hindgut fermenters", meaning that they digest nutrients by means of the cecum. [137] Thus, horses are adapted to inhabit an ecological niche characterized by poor quality vegetation. [138] While this means that they extract less energy from a given amount of forage, it also means that they can digest food faster and make up the difference in efficiency by increasing their consumption rate, obtaining adequate nutrition from lower quality forage than can ruminants. [138] Because of their consumption rate, while the BLM rates horses by animal unit (AUM) to eat the same amount of forage as a cow-calf pair, 1.0, some studies of horse grazing patterns indicate that horses probably consume forage at a rate closer to 1.5 AUM. [139] Horses can, however, cover vast distances to find water and the high fibrous grasses they thrive on; [140] they may range nine times as far from water sources as cattle, traveling as much as 55 kilometres (34 mi) [141] to 80 kilometres (50 mi) from a water source. [142] This means they can reach grazing land that cattle cannot access. [143]

Unlike cows, horse incisors allow them to graze plants much closer to the ground increasing recovery time for the plant. [144] [42] Modern rangeland management also recommends removing all livestock [lower-alpha 16] during the growing season to maximize recovery of the forage. Allowing livestock, including horses, to graze year-round not only degrades the range, but negatively impacts the wildlife that shares the same area. [145] Another concern is that Feral horses compete for water with other wildlife species, and often are dominant over some, such as the pronghorn, which in drought conditions causes stress that impacts the survival. [146]

Notes

Map from the 1991 National Research Council Report depicting the Great Basin in reference to the feral horses in the Western U.S. Depiction of the Great Basin.gif
Map from the 1991 National Research Council Report depicting the Great Basin in reference to the feral horses in the Western U.S.
  1. ↑ Hereafter, references to "the agencies" refers only to the BLM and the USFS.
  2. ↑ The Chincoteague Pony is managed by the NPS on the Maryland side of the island, while those on the Virginia side are managed by a private organization. [15]
  3. ↑ Primarily BLM-administered lands, but also Forest Service and Department of Defense lands
  4. ↑ Wolves were already rare in the Great Basin, where the vast majority of mustangs are found, in historic times, [44] and are not currently known to exist anywhere free-roaming horses are found. [43] Black bears have also started to repopulate in the interior of Nevada, after having been extirpated 80 years ago. [45]
  5. ↑ Mountain lions, like wolves, were historically rare in the Great Basin until deer, also historically rare, started moving in, possibly due because of the change of habitat caused by grazing livestock. [44] The study also found that sorrel colored foals were killed at a higher rate than foals of other colors, indicating that the lions were targeting those that most resembled deer. [46]
  6. ↑ McKnight's total numbers, 17,330-33,660, includes feral horse population estimates for Alaska, British Columbia and Alberta.
  7. ↑ Adoptions actually began in 1973. [74]
  8. ↑ These numbers are derived from subtracting the total numbers from 2001 until 2007, provided on page 7 of the 2008 GAO report from the total numbers from 1971 until 2007 provided on page 3 of the same report.
  9. ↑ Numbers are derived from subtracting the total numbers from 2001 until 2007, provided on page 7 of the 2008 GAO report from the total numbers from 1971 until 2007 provided on page 3 of the same report. However, the BLM asserts that it had adopted out 230,000 horses and burros from 1971 until 2015, whereas the 2008 GAO report stated that from 1971 until 2007 235,700 animals had been adopted out. The GAO number appears to be too high, since it also states that, in 2001, 9,807 animals were in holding facilities, making the total of animals adopted out plus the total being held about 6000 animals more than captured.
  10. ↑ The "Burns Amendment" is called an amendment because it amended the WFRH&BA, but it was passed as a "rider" to the 2005 Interior Appropriations Act.
  11. ↑ The Burns Amendment also removed from the WFRH&BA the statement: "that no wild free-roaming horse or burro or its remains may be sold or transferred for consideration for processing into commercial products." [99]
  12. ↑ In 2008, the BLM considered complying with the mandate to euthanize excess horses. [102]
  13. ↑ The Rahall Amendment stated: "Appropriations made herein shall not be available for the destruction of healthy, wild unadopted horses and burros in the care of the Bureau of Land Management or its contractor's or for the sale of wild horses and burros that results in their destruction for processing into commercial products." See page 5 of the bill. [104]
  14. ↑ In the appropriation committee report the Senate stated: "Within the amount provided for wild horse and burro management, the Bureau should continue to implement reforms based on the findings and recommendations outlined in the National Academy of Sciences June 2013 report. The Committee remains concerned about the well-being of animals on the range due to drought conditions and population trends, as well as about the resulting impacts to rangeland and riparian areas. The Bureau is directed to achieve appropriate management levels in Herd Management Areas, with priority given to those areas that overlap priority sage-grouse habitat." [113]
  15. ↑ The first (May 2017) Congressional request for the report had asked the BLM to "review all serious proposals from non-governmental organizations (NGOs)... to achieve long-term sustainable populations on the range... " The second and third requests (November 2017 and March 2018) removed the requirement of evaluating and presenting NGO proposals, but Attachment 3 of the report did discuss NGO proposals and explained why they weren't viable [81]
  16. ↑ "livestock" in this context includes sheep, cattle and horses. [145]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bureau of Land Management</span> Agency within the US Department of the Interior

The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) is an agency within the United States Department of the Interior responsible for administering federal lands. Headquartered in Washington, D.C., and with oversight over 247.3 million acres (1,001,000 km2), it governs one eighth of the country's landmass.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mustang</span> Free-roaming horse of the Western US

The mustang is a free-roaming horse of the Western United States, descended from horses brought to the Americas by the Spanish. Mustangs are often referred to as wild horses, but because they are descended from once-domesticated animals, they are actually feral horses. The original mustangs were Colonial Spanish horses, but many other breeds and types of horses contributed to the modern mustang, now resulting in varying phenotypes. Some free-roaming horses are relatively unchanged from the original Spanish stock, most strongly represented in the most isolated populations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kaimanawa horse</span> Breed of horse

Kaimanawa horses are a population of feral horses in New Zealand that are descended from domestic horses released in the 19th and 20th centuries. They are known for their hardiness and quiet temperament. The New Zealand government strictly controls the population to protect the habitat in which they live, which includes several endangered species of plants. The varying heritage gives the breed a wide range of heights, body patterns and colours. They are usually well-muscled, sure-footed and tough.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Colonial Spanish horse</span> American breed of horse

Colonial Spanish horse is a term for a group of horse breed and feral populations descended from the original Iberian horse stock brought from Spain to the Americas. The ancestral type from which these horses descend was a product of the horse populations that blended between the Iberian horse and the North African Barb. The term encompasses many strains or breeds now found primarily in North America. The status of the Colonial Spanish horse is considered threatened overall with seven individual strains specifically identified. The horses are registered by several entities.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Spanish Mustang</span> American breed of horse

The Spanish Mustang is an American horse breed descended from horses brought from Spain during the early conquest of the Americas. They are classified within the larger grouping of the Colonial Spanish horse, a type that today is rare in Spain. By the early 20th century, most of the once-vast herds of mustangs that had descended from the Spanish horses had been greatly reduced in size. Seeing that these horses were on the brink of extinction, some horseman began making efforts to find and preserve the remaining "Spanish Mustangs" drawing stock from feral and Native American herds, as well as ranch stock. The breed was one of the first to be part of a concerted preservation effort for horses of Spanish phenotype, and a breed registry was founded in 1957.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nokota horse</span> American breed of horse

The Nokota horse is a feral and semi-feral horse breed located in the badlands of southwestern North Dakota in the United States. The breed developed in the 19th century from foundation bloodstock consisting of ranch-bred horses produced from the horses of local Native Americans mixed with Spanish horses, Thoroughbreds, harness horses and related breeds. The Nokota was almost wiped out during the early 20th century when ranchers, in cooperation with state and federal agencies, worked together to reduce competition for livestock grazing. However, when Theodore Roosevelt National Park was created in the 1940s, a few bands were inadvertently trapped inside, and thus were preserved.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kiger mustang</span> Strain of mustang horse originating in Oregon, US

The Kiger mustang is a strain of mustang horse located in the southeastern part of the U.S. state of Oregon. Horses with specific conformation traits discovered in 1977, the name applies only to wild-captured individuals and does not apply to their bred-in-captivity progeny, which are known as Kiger horses. The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) administers two herd management areas for Kiger mustangs in the Burns District—Kiger and Riddle Mountain, in the Steens Mountain area. DNA testing has shown that Kiger mustangs are descended largely from Spanish horses brought to North America in the 17th century, a bloodline thought to have largely disappeared from mustang herds before the Kiger horses were found.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Feral horse</span> Free horses of domesticated horse ancestry

A feral horse is a free-roaming horse of domesticated stock. As such, a feral horse is not a wild animal in the sense of an animal without domesticated ancestors. However, some populations of feral horses are managed as wildlife, and these horses often are popularly called "wild" horses. Feral horses are descended from domestic horses that strayed, escaped, or were deliberately released into the wild and remained to survive and reproduce there. Away from humans, over time, these animals' patterns of behavior revert to behavior more closely resembling that of wild horses. Some horses that live in a feral state but may be occasionally handled or managed by humans, particularly if privately owned, are referred to as "semi-feral".

The Banker horse is a breed of semi-feral or feral horse living on barrier islands in North Carolina's Outer Banks. It is small, hardy, and has a docile temperament, and is genetically related to the Carolina Marsh Tacky of South Carolina and Florida Cracker Horse breeds through their shared Colonial Spanish horse and Iberian horse descent. The current population of wild Banker horses is estimated to be about 400.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Velma Bronn Johnston</span>

Velma Bronn Johnston, also known as Wild Horse Annie, was an animal welfare activist. She led a campaign to stop the eradication of mustangs and free-roaming burros from public lands. She was instrumental in passing legislation to stop using aircraft and land vehicles from inhumanely capturing wild horses and burros.

Kleppe v. New Mexico, 426 U.S. 529 (1976), was a United States Supreme Court decision that unanimously held the Wild and Free-Roaming Horses and Burros Act of 1971, passed in 1971 by the United States Congress to protect these animals from "capture, branding, harassment, or death", to be a constitutional exercise of congressional power. In February 1974, the New Mexico Livestock Board rounded up and sold 19 unbranded burros from Bureau of Land Management (BLM) land. When the BLM demanded the animals' return, the state filed suit claiming that the Wild Free-Roaming Horses and Burros Act was unconstitutional, claiming the federal government did not have the power to control animals in federal lands unless they were items in interstate commerce or causing damage to the public lands.

Wyoming straddles the Continental Divide, and its abrupt topographic relief includes alternating basins and mountain ranges. Major mountain ranges include the Beartooth, Gros Ventre, Teton, Wind River, Bighorn, Sierra Madre, and Medicine Bow. Internal basins and eastern plains are rolling to flat, and in the east are the Great Plains.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Madeleine A. Pickens</span> Iraqi American businesswoman and philanthropist

Madeleine Anne Pickens is a businesswoman and philanthropist who has lived in the United States since 1969. She is a developer of and stockholder in the Del Mar Country Club in Rancho Santa Fe, California, and the owner of the Mustang Monument: Wild Horse Eco-Resort near Wells, Nevada and the founder of Saving America's Mustangs. She is also a thoroughbred racehorse owner and breeder. She is the widow of American businessman Allen E. Paulson and former wife of multi-millionaire T. Boone Pickens.

The Pryor Mountains Wild Horse Range is a refuge for a historically significant herd of free-roaming mustangs, the Pryor Mountain mustang, feral horses colloquially called "wild horses", located in the Pryor Mountains of Montana and Wyoming in the United States. The range has an area of 39,650 acres (160.5 km2) and was established in 1968 along the Montana–Wyoming border as the first protected refuge dedicated exclusively for mustangs. It was the second feral horse refuge in the United States. About a quarter of the refuge lies within the Bighorn Canyon National Recreation Area. A group of federal agencies, led by the Bureau of Land Management, administers the range.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wild and Free-Roaming Horses and Burros Act of 1971</span> Act of Congress (Pub.L. 92–195), signed into law by President Richard M. Nixon on December 18, 1971

The Wild and Free-Roaming Horses and Burros Act of 1971 (WFRHBA), is an Act of Congress, signed into law by President Richard M. Nixon on December 18, 1971. The act covered the management, protection and study of "unbranded and unclaimed horses and burros on public lands in the United States."

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pryor Mountain mustang</span> American horse breed

The Pryor Mountain mustang is a substrain of mustang considered to be genetically unique and one of the few strains of horses verified by DNA analysis to be descended from the original Colonial Spanish horses brought to the Americas by the Spanish. They live on the Pryor Mountains Wild Horse Range located in the Pryor Mountains of Montana and Wyoming in the United States, and are the only mustang herd remaining in Montana, and one of sixteen in Wyoming. They are protected by the Wild and Free-Roaming Horses and Burros Act of 1971 (WFRHBA) and managed by the Bureau of Land Management (BLM), who has set the optimum herd number at 120 animals. Genetic studies have revealed that the herd exhibits a high degree of genetic diversity and a low degree of inbreeding, and BLM has acknowledged the genetic uniqueness of the herd. Pryor Mountain Mustangs are relatively small horses, exhibit a natural ambling gait, and domesticated Pryor Mountain mustangs are known for their strength, sure-footedness and stamina. The Pryor Mountains Wild Horse Range is one of the most accessible areas to view feral horse herds in the United States and tourism to the area has increased in recent years.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cumberland Island horse</span> American horse breed

The Cumberland Island horses are a band of feral horses living on Cumberland Island in the state of Georgia. Popular myth holds that horses arrived on the island sometime in the 16th century with the arrival of the Spanish conquistadors. However, it is unlikely that any horses left by the Spanish survived, and more likely the current population descends from horses brought to the island in the 18th century by the English. Cumberland Island became part of the Cumberland Island National Seashore in 1972 when the National Park Service (NPS) took over its management. These horses are similar to the bands of horses living on the islands of Chincoteague and Assateague. There is estimated to be a population of between 150 and 200 horses on the island. Horses on Cumberland Island have a relatively short life expectancy, due to pest infestations, disease and their rugged environment. In 2000 a behavioral study found that instability marks the bands, with large numbers of co-dominant stallions, early dispersal of juveniles, and frequent band-changing among mares.

Grazing rights in Nevada covers a number of rangeland Federal and state laws and regulations applicable to the state of Nevada. Rangelands are distinguished from pasture lands because they grow primarily native vegetation, rather than plants established by humans. Ranchers may lease or obtain permits to use portions of this public rangeland and pay a fee based on the number and type of livestock and the period for which they are on the land.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cerbat mustang</span> American horse breed

The Cerbat mustang is a Wild Horse population of Arizona, found in the Cerbat Herd Management Area in that state. Their main coat colors are chestnut, bay, and roan. While their phenotype is similar to the classic Colonial Spanish horse, the actual origin of Cerbat mustangs is unclear, but they have been identified by DNA testing as of Colonial Spanish horse ancestry, and they are recognized by the Spanish Mustang registry as valid foundation stock for that standardized breed. Cerbats possess the ability to gait.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 Zomorodi, Sanam; Walker, Tony R. (August 2019). "Management Strategies of Free-Roaming Horses in Alberta Compared with Other Jurisdictions". Rangeland Ecology & Management. 72 (6): 907–915. doi:10.1016/j.rama.2019.07.001. S2CID   202006442.
  2. ↑ "Seeing wild horses in Shannon County, Missouri". St. Louis Post-Dispatch . June 26, 2021. Retrieved June 27, 2021.
  3. ↑ Azzaroli, A. (1992). "Ascent and decline of monodactyl equids: a case for prehistoric overkill" (PDF). Ann. Zool. Finnici. 28: 151–163.
  4. ↑ LeQuire, Elise (January 4, 2004). "No Grass, No Horse". The Horse, online edition. Retrieved June 8, 2009.
  5. ↑ "Ice Age Horses May Have Been Killed Off by Humans". National Geographic News. May 1, 2006.
  6. ↑ Buck, Caitlin E.; Bard, Edouard (2007). "A calendar chronology for Pleistocene mammoth and horse extinction in North America based on Bayesian radiocarbon calibration". Quaternary Science Reviews. 26 (17–18): 2031. Bibcode:2007QSRv...26.2031B. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2007.06.013.
  7. ↑ Luís, Cristina; et al. (2006). "Iberian Origins of New World Horse Breeds". Journal of Heredity . 97 (2): 107–113. doi: 10.1093/jhered/esj020 . PMID   16489143.
  8. ↑ Rittman, Paul. "Spanish Colonial Horse and the Plains Indian Culture" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on April 12, 2019. Retrieved January 18, 2015.
  9. ↑ "Horses Spread Across the Land". A Song for the Horse Nation. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved June 14, 2015.
  10. ↑ Horse Capture, George P.; Her Many Horses, Emil (2006). A song for the horse nation : horses in native American cultures. Washington: D. C. p. 8. ISBN   9781555911126.
  11. ↑ Adams, Kristina (December 19, 2014). "Horses in History – Introduction – A Horse is a Horse". USDA National Agricultural Library. Archived from the original on April 30, 2015. Retrieved May 19, 2015.
  12. ↑ "North American Colonial Spanish Horse". Spanish Mustangs.
  13. 1 2 Mason, Chris. "How to rescue a wild horse: A comparison of American and Canadian policies." Archived October 6, 2012, at the Wayback Machine
  14. ↑ McLoughlin, Phillip D. "Ecology, Evolution, and Conservation of the Sable Island Horses." http://sableislandfriends.ca/?p=594
  15. ↑ "Assateague's Wild Horses". nps.gov. Retrieved June 10, 2010.
  16. ↑ McCrory, Wayne. "Preliminary Conservation Assessment of the Rainshadow Wild Horse Ecossystem, Brittany Triangle, Chilcotin, British Columbia." March 2002.
  17. ↑ "2014 Feral horse survey count" (PDF). Alberta Government. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 3, 2014. Retrieved September 2, 2015.
  18. ↑ "Proposed Saskatchewan law would protect wild horses." Western Producer, November 12, 2009.
  19. ↑ "An Act for Extermination of Wild Horses, SBC 1896, c 49." Legislative Assembly of British Columbia, April 17, 1896
  20. ↑ J.A., Hudson, R.J. and R.E. Salter, 1977: "Habitat use behaviour of feral horses and spatial relationships with moose in central British Columbia." Syesis 10: 39-44
  21. ↑ "Begin campaign to kill off wild horses on range." Milwaukee Journal, February 12, 1940, page 2.
  22. ↑ "Wild Horses of Canada" by Norma Bearcroft. The Canadian Wild Horse Society, Richmond, BC, 1974
  23. 1 2 Strategic Relations Inc."Alberta Environment and Sustainable Resource Development. Alberta's Feral Horses: Managing Populations." http://esrd.alberta.ca/lands-forests/land-management/feral-horses/documents/FeralHorses-ManagingPopulations-2013.pdf Archived March 26, 2015, at the Wayback Machine
  24. ↑ "Horses of Suffield" eds. K. Rankin, J. Krepakevich. Montreal, Quebec: National Film Board of Canada, 1988.
  25. ↑ Government of Alberta "Horse Capture Regulation."
  26. 1 2 3 Alison
  27. ↑ Salter, Richard E. "Wild Horses."
  28. 1 2 3 Chapter P-29.2 of The Statutes of Saskatchewan, 2009 (effective December 3, 2009).
  29. ↑ Wild Horses of Alberta Society "WHOAS Progress."
  30. ↑ Wild Horses of Alberta Society "WHOAS Contraception Program Progress Report."
  31. ↑ "New study of wild horses launched" Calgary Herald, November 12, 2017.
  32. ↑ Science and Conservation Center at ZooMontana "Wildlife Fertility Control: Fact & Fancy."
  33. ↑ Wild Horses of Alberta Society "WHOAS Solutions."
  34. ↑ Wild Horses Fertility Control Group "Determined to be Part of a Humane Solution"
  35. ↑ Snopek, R. W. 2013: "Hearts in the Wild: inspiring Stories of Animal Rescues." Heritage House Publishing Co.
  36. 1 2 CBC News, November 12, 2009: "No quick vote on pony protection law."
  37. ↑ The Moose Jaw Times Herald, November 5, 2009: "Saskatchewan considers new law to protect wild ponies in the Bronson Forest." [ permanent dead link ]
  38. 1 2 3 4 Masters, Ben (February 6, 2017). "Wild Horses, Wilder Controversy". National Geographic Society .
  39. 1 2 National Research Council (1982). "4". Wild and Free Roaming Horses and Burros: Final Report (Report). Washington D.C.: The National Academies Press. pp. 11–13.
  40. ↑ MacPhee. MANAGED TO EXTINCTION? A 40th Anniversary Legal Forum assessing the 1971 Wild Free-Roaming Horses & Burros Act (Report).
  41. ↑ "The Surprising History of America's Wild Horses". Livescience.com. July 24, 2008. Retrieved August 9, 2010.
  42. 1 2 "Final Position Statement; Feral Horses and Burros in North America" (PDF). wildlife.org.
  43. 1 2 National Research Council, 2013, pp. 72–5, doi:10.17226/13511, ISBN   978-0-309-26494-5
  44. 1 2 Grayson, Donald K. (1993). The Desert's Past a Natural Prehistory of the Great Basin. Washington D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press. p. 300.
  45. ↑ Sonner, Scott (November 26, 2017). "Black bears return to eastern Nevada after 80 years". Las Vegas Review-Journal.
  46. 1 2 John W. Turner, Jr.; Michael L. Morrison (2008). "Influence of Predation by Mountain Lions on Numbers and Survivorship of a Feral Horse Population". Southwestern Naturalist. 46 (2): 183–190. JSTOR   3672527/.
  47. ↑ Murchie, Tyler J.; Monteath, Alistair J.; Mahony, Matthew E.; Long, George S.; Cocker, Scott; Sadoway, Tara; Karpinski, Emil; Zazula, Grant; MacPhee, Ross D. E.; Froese, Duane; Poinar, Hendrik N. (2021). "Collapse of the mammoth-steppe in central Yukon as revealed by ancient environmental DNA". Nature Communications . 12 (7120 (2021)): 2031. Bibcode:2007QSRv...26.2031B. doi:10.1038/s41467-021-27439-6. PMC   8654998 . PMID   34880234.
  48. ↑ "Ancient DNA found in soil samples reveals mammoths, Yukon wild horses survived thousands of years longer than believed". Phys.org . December 8, 2021.
  49. ↑ Wyman, Walker D. (1966) [1945]. The Wild Horse of the West. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. p. 161. ISBN   978-0803252233.
  50. 1 2 3 4 Sherrets, Harold (1984). The Taylor Grazing Act, 1934-1984, 50 Years of Progress, Impacts of Wild Horses on Rangeland Management. Boise: U. S. Dept. of Interior, Bureau of Land Management Idaho State Office.
  51. ↑ Amaral, Anthony (1977). Mustang: Life and Legends of Nevada's Wild Horses . Reno: University of Nevada Press. pp.  19–20. ISBN   9780874170467.
  52. ↑ Young, James A.; Sparks, B. Abbott (1992) [1985.]. Cattle in the Cold Desert Expanded Edition. Reno and Las Vegas: University of Nevada Press. ISBN   9780874175035.
  53. ↑ "Horse Sense". Audubon Magazine. 2009. Archived from the original on October 9, 2015. Retrieved September 6, 2015.
  54. ↑ Ryden, Hope (2005) [1990]. America's Last Wild Horses: The Classic Study of the Mustangs--Their Pivotal Role in the History of the West, Their Return to the Wild, and the Ongoing Efforts to Preserve Them. Guilford: Lyons and Burford. pp. 186–187. ISBN   978-1592288731.
  55. 1 2 3 4 "History of the Program". Bureau of Land Management National Wild Horse and Burro Program. Retrieved August 13, 2015.
  56. ↑ Amaral, Anthony (1977). Mustang: Life and Legends of Nevada's Wild Horses . Reno: University of Nevada Press. p.  133. ISBN   9780874170467.
  57. 1 2 Sharp, Lee (1984). The Taylor Grazing Act, 1934-1984, 50 Years of Progress, Overview of the Taylor Grazing Act. Boise: U. S. Dept. of Interior, Bureau of Land Management Idaho State Office. p. 9.
  58. ↑ "Taylor Grazing Act". Bureau of Land Management Casper Field Office. Archived from the original on September 24, 2015. Retrieved August 16, 2015.
  59. 1 2 Amaral, Anthony (1977). Mustang: Life and Legends of Nevada's Wild Horses . Reno: University of Nevada Press. pp.  141–142. ISBN   9780874170467.
  60. 1 2 Amaral, Anthony (1977). Mustang: Life and Legends of Nevada's Wild Horses . Reno: University of Nevada Press. pp.  143–144. ISBN   9780874170467.
  61. ↑ "A Long and Varied History". Bureau of Land Management. Archived from the original on September 24, 2015. Retrieved August 18, 2015.
  62. 1 2 "History and Facts". Bureau of Land Management National Wild Horse and Burro Program. Archived from the original on December 28, 2015. Retrieved July 5, 2015.
  63. ↑ McKnight, Tom L. (October 1959). "The Feral Horse in Anglo-America". Geographical Review. 49 (4): 506–525. doi:10.2307/212210. JSTOR   212210.
  64. ↑ "18 U.S. Code § 47 - Use of aircraft or motor vehicles to hunt certain wild horses or burros; pollution of watering holes". Legal Information Institute.
  65. ↑ Ryden, Hope (2005) [1990]. America's Last Wild Horses: The Classic Study of the Mustangs--Their Pivotal Role in the History of the West, Their Return to the Wild, and the Ongoing Efforts to Preserve Them. Guilford: Lyons and Burford. p. 227. ISBN   978-1592288731.
  66. ↑ "Nevada Wild Horse Range" (PDF). Bureau of Land Management. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 24, 2015. Retrieved August 18, 2015.
  67. ↑ "National Mustang Association".
  68. ↑ Ryden, Hope (1973) [1970]. America's Last Wild Horses (paperback ed.). New York: Ballantine Books. p. 236.
  69. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "The Wild Free-Roaming Horses and Burros Act of 1971 (Public Law 92-195)". Bureau of Land Management National Wild Horse and Burro Program. Archived from the original on October 18, 2011. Retrieved August 13, 2015.
  70. 1 2 Findley, page 6
  71. ↑ National Research Council, 1991, p. vii, doi:10.17226/18466, ISBN   978-0-309-29162-0
  72. ↑ https://digitalscholarship.unlv.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi%5B%5D? referer=https://www.google.com/&httpsredir=1&article=1220&context=thesesdissertations
  73. ↑ Rutberg, Allen (January 1, 2003). "Wild Horses and Burros in the United States". State of the Animals 2003.
  74. 1 2 United States Department of the Interior Inspector General (1998). Audit Report The Adopt-a-Horse Program, Bureau of Land Management (PDF) (Report). p. 1.
  75. ↑ De Steiguer page 186
  76. ↑ Findley, page 8
  77. 1 2 "Myths and Facts". Bureau of Land Management National Wild Horse and Burro Program. Retrieved July 5, 2015.
  78. ↑ "BLM Doubles Down on Wild Horse Helicopter Roundup Despite Scientific Study Calling for Alternatives". American Wild Horse Campaign. February 3, 2014.
  79. 1 2 Nazzaro, Robin N. (October 2008). "Effective Long-Term Options Needed to Manage Unadoptable Wild Horses" (PDF). Government Accountability Office. Retrieved August 17, 2015.
  80. ↑ "Appropriate Management Level (AML)". U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIORBUREAU OF LAND MANAGEMENT. Archived from the original on July 29, 2016. Retrieved September 11, 2015.
  81. 1 2 3 4 5 "Report to Congress - Management Options for a Sustainable Wild Horse and Burro Program" (PDF). Bureau of Land Management (BLM). April 26, 2018.
  82. ↑ De Steiguer, pp. 189-190
  83. 1 2 United States Senate Committee on Appropriations. Explanatory Statement of Draft FY2018 Interior, Environment, and Related Agencies Appropriations (PDF) (Report). p. 9.
  84. 1 2 3 "Audit Report: Management of Herd Levels, Wild Horse and Burro Program, Bureau of Land Management" (PDF). Department of the Interior, Office of the Inspector General. Retrieved August 16, 2015.
  85. 1 2 "Nazzaro, p. 4" (PDF).
  86. ↑ "Duffus, p. 29" (PDF).
  87. ↑ "Duffus, pp. 34-35" (PDF).
  88. ↑ Layton, Lyndsey (November 18, 2008). "A Dramatic Rescue for Doomed Wild Horses of the West" . Retrieved February 11, 2017– via washingtonpost.com.
  89. ↑ "Oil Billionaire's Wife Drafts Horse Rescue Plan". ABC News. November 21, 2008. Retrieved February 11, 2017.
  90. ↑ layton, Lindsey (March 9, 2009). "Recession Snags Plan for Wild Horse Sanctuary". Washington Post. Retrieved November 23, 2017.
  91. ↑ Harding, Adella (March 17, 2011). "BLM seeks horse eco-sanctuaries". Elko Daily News. Retrieved November 23, 2017.
  92. ↑ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on February 27, 2017. Retrieved January 6, 2018.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  93. ↑ Harris, Dylan Harris. "Wild horse eco-sanctuary up in the air". Ag Weekly. Retrieved February 12, 2017.
  94. ↑ "Who We Are". Wind River Wild Horse Sanctuary. Retrieved October 11, 2017.
  95. ↑ "Welcome to Deerwood Ranch Wild Horse EcoSanctuaryLocated west of Laramie in the beautiful Centennial Valley of WyomingOperated by Rich & Jana Wilson". www.deerwoodranchwildhorseecosanctuary.com. Archived from the original on October 12, 2017. Retrieved October 11, 2017.
  96. ↑ "What We Do". Wind River Wild Horse Sanctuary. Retrieved October 11, 2017.
  97. 1 2 3 "Nazzaro, What GAO Found" (PDF).
  98. ↑ "2004 Burns Amendment". American Wild Horse Campaign. October 2, 2012.
  99. ↑ "16 U.S. Code § 1333 - Powers and duties of Secretary". Cornell University Law School. Retrieved September 22, 2015.
  100. ↑ de Steiger p. 201
  101. 1 2 "Nazarro pp. 9-10" (PDF).
  102. ↑ Osbourn, Melinda (October 15, 2008). "Wild horses could face euthanasia". Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association. Retrieved September 26, 2015.
  103. ↑ "PUBLIC LAW 111–88—OCT. 30, 2009". govinfo.gov. November 30, 2009. Retrieved January 28, 2023.
  104. ↑ "Resolution in Support of Practical, Cost-Effective Wild Horse Management" (PDF). Colorado Northwest Resource Advisory Council. August 23, 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 23, 2015. Retrieved September 10, 2015.
  105. ↑ "2016 U.S. Omnibus Bill Denies Horsemeat Inspections". TheHorse.com. December 17, 2015. Retrieved January 11, 2016.
  106. ↑ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on December 8, 2016. Retrieved November 1, 2016.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  107. ↑ "Sample USDOI BLM Bill of Sale for Wild Horses and Burros" (PDF). Bureau of Land Management. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 18, 2015. Retrieved September 26, 2015.
  108. ↑ Guerin, Emily (2012). "Wild horses to the slaughter?". High Country News. Retrieved September 11, 2015.
  109. ↑ "Wild Horse and Burro Program Data". January 6, 2016. Archived from the original on December 5, 2015. Retrieved January 11, 2016.
  110. ↑ "The Fight Over America's Wild Horses - Sunset". Sunset. May 5, 2015. Retrieved January 11, 2016.
  111. ↑ U. S. House of Representatives (July 23, 2014). H. Rept. 113-551 - Department of the Interior, Environment, and Related Agencies Appropriations Bill, 2015 (Report).
  112. ↑ "H. R. 2020, - Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2016". December 18, 2015.
  113. ↑ "S. Rept. 114-70 - DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR, ENVIRONMENT, AND RELATED AGENCIES APPROPRIATIONS BILL, 2016" . Retrieved January 11, 2016.
  114. ↑ "BLM Wild Horse Advisory Board Meeting Recap". September 13, 2016. Archived from the original on August 9, 2017. Retrieved May 28, 2017.
  115. ↑ "California ballot initiative seeks to prevent animal cruelty, protect food safety in the Golden State".
  116. ↑ Portnoy, Jenna; Rein, Lisa (January 5, 2017). "House Republicans revive obscure rule that allows them to slash the pay of individual federal workers to $1" – via www.washingtonpost.com.
  117. ↑ "Text - H.R.244 - 115th Congress (2017-2018): Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2017 | Congress.gov | Library of Congress". Congress.gov. Retrieved July 22, 2022.
  118. ↑ House of Representatives (May 3, 2017). Congressional Record of Proceedings and Debates of the 115th Congress, First Session (PDF). Vol. 11. p. 3875.
  119. ↑ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on October 9, 2017. Retrieved September 9, 2017.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  120. ↑ House of Representatives (March 22, 2018). Congressional Record of Proceedings and Debates of the 115th Congress, Second Session (PDF). Vol. 164. p. 2611.
  121. ↑ "In a report quietly slipped to Congress, feds call for massive roundups of wild horses on public lands".
  122. ↑ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on January 9, 2019. Retrieved April 8, 2018.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  123. ↑ "Programs: Wild Horse and Burro - Adoption and Sales". blm.gov. Retrieved November 26, 2017.
  124. ↑ "Freezemarks". BLM.gov. U.S. Bureau of Land Management. August 29, 2012. Archived from the original on February 14, 2015. Retrieved May 21, 2015.
  125. ↑ "Passions And Tempers Flare Over Wild Horses In New Mexico Town". Fox News Latino. Retrieved September 4, 2015.
  126. ↑ "Virginia Range Estray Horse Management Program" (PDF). Nevada Department of Agriculture. Retrieved September 4, 2015.
  127. ↑ "Sheldon Horses". The Mustang Project. Retrieved September 4, 2015.
  128. ↑ "Horse Background and History". National Park Service, Theodore Roosevelt National Park. Retrieved September 4, 2015.
  129. ↑ "Unauthorized Horse Identification and Gather on the Tonto NF". United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service. Retrieved September 4, 2015.
  130. ↑ "The Journal" . Retrieved January 11, 2016.
  131. ↑ Landry, Alysa. "Controlling the Navajo Nation's Free-Roaming Horse Dilemma". Indian Country Today.
  132. ↑ National Research Council (1982). "5". Wild and Free Roaming Horses and Burros: Final Report (Report). Washington D.C.: The National Academies Press. p. 55. doi:10.17226/18789. ISBN   978-0-309-30462-7.
  133. 1 2 "Bellisle, Martha. "Legislative battle brews over Nevada's wild horses" Associated Press reprinted at I.G.H.A. / HorseAid's Bureau of Land Management News. Web site accessed May 11, 2007". Igha.org. Archived from the original on November 23, 2010. Retrieved August 9, 2010.
  134. ↑ National Research Council, 1991, p. v-vi, doi:10.17226/18466, ISBN   978-0-309-29162-0
  135. ↑ National Research Council, 2013, p. 240, doi:10.17226/13511, ISBN   978-0-309-26494-5
  136. ↑ Dahl, Rachel. "Ignoring the Rule of Law" (PDF). www.rangemagazine.com/. Retrieved January 28, 2023.
  137. ↑ janis, christine (1976). "The Evolutionary Strategy of the Equidae and the Origins of Rumen and Cecal Digestion". Evolution; International Journal of Organic Evolution. 30 (4): 757–774. doi: 10.1111/j.1558-5646.1976.tb00957.x . PMID   28563331.
  138. 1 2 Budiansky, p. 31
  139. ↑ National Research Council, Using Science, p. 207
  140. ↑ Budiansky, p. 186
  141. ↑ Hampson BA, de Laat MA, Mills PC, Pollitt CC (2010). "Distances travelled by feral horses in 'outback' Australia". Equine Veterinary Journal. Supplement. 42 (38): 582–6. doi:10.1111/j.2042-3306.2010.00203.x. PMID   21059064.
  142. ↑ "Equusite.com - Dr. Paul McGreevy on Horse Behavior - an Interview with Dr. Paul McGreevy about Equine Behavior". Archived from the original on November 3, 2016. Retrieved January 12, 2017.[ full citation needed ]
  143. ↑ "Wild Horses and the Ecosystem". Wildhorsepreservation.com. Archived from the original on June 14, 2009. Retrieved August 9, 2010.
  144. ↑ "Proposed Northeast Nevada Wild Horse Eco-Sanctuary" (PDF). Bureau of Land Management, Elko District, Wells Field Office. pp. 2–3. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 3, 2017. Retrieved July 31, 2015.
  145. 1 2 Davies, K.W.; Vavra, M.; Schultz, B.; Rimbey, M. (2014). "Implications of Longer Term Rest from Grazing in the Sagebrush Steppe". Journal of Rangeland Applications. 1. Archived from the original on September 5, 2015. Retrieved July 31, 2015.
  146. ↑ Gooch, Amy M. J.; Petersen, Steven L.; Collins, Gail H.; Smith, Tom S.; McMillan, Brock R.; Eggett, Dennis L. (March 1, 2017). "The impact of feral horses on pronghorn behavior at water sources". Journal of Arid Environments. 138: 38–43. Bibcode:2017JArEn.138...38G. doi: 10.1016/j.jaridenv.2016.11.012 .

Sources

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.