Helicoverpa punctigera

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Helicoverpa punctigera
CSIRO ScienceImage 82 Helicoverpa punctigera Moth.jpg
CSIRO ScienceImage 83 Helicoverpa punctigera Moth Larvae.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Lepidoptera
Superfamily: Noctuoidea
Family: Noctuidae
Genus: Helicoverpa
Species:
H. punctigera
Binomial name
Helicoverpa punctigera
(Wallengren, 1860) [1]
Synonyms
  • Heliothis punctigeraWallengren, 1860
  • Chloridea marmadaSwinhoe, 1918

Helicoverpa punctigera, the native budworm, Australian bollworm or Chloridea marmada, is a species of moth in the family Noctuidae. This species is native to Australia. H. punctigera are capable of long-distance migration from their inland Australian habitat towards coastal regions [2] and are an occasional migrant to New Zealand. [3]

Contents

This species is a generalist, with larvae observed feeding on at least 100 plant species, and are considered a pest for tobacco, flax, peas, sunflower, cotton, maize, tomatoes and other crops. [4] Outside of agricultural settings, primary host plants include some Australian native daisies, in particular flat billy buttons Leiocarpa brevicompta, [5] annual yellow tops Senecio gregorii , poached egg daisy Polycamma stuartii, [6] and also the native legume Cullen cinereum . [7] Helicoverpa punctigera is often compared to its cousin species H. armigera who unlike H. punctigera has developed resistance to certain insecticides and other genetically modified cotton crops. The two species can occasionally be confused with one another as they look similar. However, the two species can be differentiated by characteristic differences in their hindwings. [8] H. punctigera is often confused with two other moth species of the family Noctuidae – the Armyworm Moth ( Mythimna unipuncta ) and the Looper Moth [ which? ] due to the medium-sized nature of the three species.

Taxonomy

Helicoverpa punctigera was first described in 1860 by Wallengren. The subject of classification has changed over the years. Originally classified into the Heliothis genus, this moth species was later re-classified into the Helicoverpa genus. [9] The earliest record of H. punctigera in South Australia was in 1910 when it was referred to as “Grubby Tomatoes”. [10]

Description

Eggs

Helicoverpa punctigera egg are spherical in shape and 0.5 millimetres (3⁄128 in) in diameter. [11] While its colours vary based on the stage of larval development. While originally white, the eggs will change to brown and finally black just before hatching. [8]

Larvae

Newly hatched larvae are observed to be 1–2 millimetres (3⁄64–5⁄64 in) in length and will grow up to 40 millimetres (1+1⁄2 in) in length. Observed to be various shades of brown, green and orange, the larvae's colour darkens as it matures and the dark spots on it become more apparent. The H. punctigera larva's body is covered in small bumps, long stiff back hairs and bristles that cover its body and there are black hairs around the head. [11]

Pupae

Helicoverpa punctigera pupae range from dark brown to shiny brown in colour. [8]

Adult

Compared to other moths, the adult H. punctigera is average in size, having a wingspan of 30 to 45 millimetres (1+1⁄4 to 1+3⁄4 in). While the male H. punctigera generally have dull green or yellow forewings, the female H. punctigera have brown or reddish-brown forewings. The adult H. punctigera strongly resembles the adult H. armigera except for its hindwing pattern: H. punctigera have a uniformly dark section in the hindwing, whereas H. armigera have a small pale patch here. [8]

Life Cycle

Eggs

H. punctigera eggs observe four stages in their development. The stages can be identified based on the colour of the egg. Freshly laid eggs are white and over time. In warmer climates, the eggs take approximately three days to hatch, while in colder climates, they take between six and ten days to hatch. [8]

Larvae

H. punctigera larvae pass through six stages of growth before reaching the pupa stage. With a warmer temperature, they will reach the final stage within two to three weeks, while under colder temperature, they take about four to six weeks. [8] The caterpillars have been shown experimentally to distinguish between host plant species when moving across the ground, and readily move between nearby plants. [12]

Pupae

Prepupae larvae (larvae after the 6th growth stage) tunnel up to 10 centimetres (4 in) under the soil to the base of the plant. The pupal chamber constructed will allow the H. punctigera to resurface when in adult stage. The pupal tunnels constructed are smoothed, well-packed soil with a thin layer of silk. The prepupae larvae avoid selecting soil locations where the temperature is higher than 38 degrees and have compacted soil. [13] The emergence of the adult is highly favoured by dry conditions. Rain and other external conditions that might collapse the tunnel reduces the survival rate of the adult H. punctigera due to the disruption of emergence. [14] [15]

The pupation process relies on the external temperature. In warmer temperatures, the pupation process takes approximately two weeks. While in colder temperatures, up to six weeks. During colder seasons, 70% to 90% of the pupae enter diapause. [14] Pupae Diapause is the process in which the pupae development to the adult stage is suspended due to inhibiting or unfavourable environmental conditions.

Adult

The adult Helicoverpa punctigera moth feeds on nectar after emerging from the pupae. Their adult lifespan is limited to ten days where they mate and lay their eggs before dying. The female typically lay their eggs either in clusters or singly on various developing fruit and flower buds. Each adult female lays approximately 1000 eggs during its lifecycle. [16] Adult Helicoverpa punctigera moths typically live between two and four weeks. As they are nocturnal, they rest during the day and are active at night [17]

Reproduction

Belonging to the insecta class of animals, the H. punctigera follows an oviposition behaviour where it expulses its eggs by a vertebrate. [10] Oviposition is the expulsion of eggs from the female insecta's oviduct to an external environment. While the Oviposition behaviour is unrelated to the feeding habits of the female H. punctigera, the female H. punctigera tends to lay its eggs in areas with more flowering crops than in other areas. This is mainly due to the female H. punctigera feeding habits as the food chain is crucial in the reproductive cycle of the H. punctigera. Any factors affecting the food supply during their reproduction period (usually in summer) would determine the reproductive potential of the H. punctigera specials. [10] Despite the H. punctigera feeding habits however, the female H. punctigera is able to lay its eggs anywhere and at any time of day. [10]

The selection of area is also crucial to the survival of the eggs and larvae of the H. punctigera. Selecting an area in the open will lead to the eggs and larvae being susceptible to various predatory insects and animals. Furthermore, selecting an area without sufficient food would mean that the larvae would not have enough to feed on as well.

Migration

Helicoverpa punctigera is capable of long-range migration at high altitudes (400 to 800 metres (1,312 to 2,625 ft)) over host crops (1 to 10 kilometres (1⁄2 to 6 mi)) in addition to entire regions (10 to 500 kilometres (6 to 311 mi)). [16] With long-distance flight being possible for the H. punctigera, their habitats are generally observed to be temporary once the H. punctigera reaches the adult stage of the life cycle. [18] It is noted that the H. punctigera are found in abundance in the far inland and around the coast of Australia during the summer period. This is heavily due to the climate being favourable for the reproduction in summer. [18]

As of 2010 there was research regarding the migration of the H. punctigera, but it was difficult to test for the back-migration of H. punctigera. That was primarily due to there being a gradual migration of the population and there being no appropriate markers to track individual H. punctigera. [19] As of 2019 tracking had been greatly improved by advances in radar, population genetics markers, and dispersal modeling. [9]

Ecology

Mutualism

As a member of the Noctuidae family, H. punctigera plays a part in the pollination process of plants.

Food Guilds

H. punctigera particularly feed on high value crops such as cotton, soybean, maize, and tomato and various other horticultural hosts. [9]

In the early larvae stages, the H. punctigera feed on seeds and damage plant pods while in the mid to late stages of development, the larger H. punctigera larvae is able to consume entire plant pods and their contents. [17]

Defence

When disturbed, the H. punctigera lifts its head and curls it below the front of itself. If disturbed further, it lets go of the leaf it resides on and drops while curling itself up into a spiral shape.

Economics

Agricultural Impact

While in the larval stage, H. punctigera cause farmers to lose millions of dollars’ worth of crops due to their polyphagous eating habits. They prefer eating mostly broadleaf species of plants such as cotton, chickpea and various native herbs in addition to a broad selection of other various pastures. [16] The further the H. punctigera larvae are in the growth stage, the more the larvae consume. When in the 5th and 6th instars, the H. punctigera larvae consume 90% of the grain consumption the H. punctigera consumes in its life cycle. [17]

When the H. punctigera consumes crops, chewing damage and holes can be observed on the plant pods and seed heads. [17]

Pest Control Measures

Pheromone traps

Various pest control measures have been implemented. Including the use of pheromone traps. Pheromone traps use synthetic pheromone lures (similar to the sex pheromones that females emit while mating) to lure the male punctigera into the trap. [8] In addition to trapping the adult H. punctigera, pheromone traps are often used to monitor the activity of and predict the infestation rate of H. punctigera and other moths. [8]

Genetically Modified Crops

Unlike the closely related H. armigera, H. punctigera has not developed any resistance to majority of the chemical control measures created. [20] Genetically modified Cotton plants such as the Bollgard II® [19] and the Bollarrd 3® are genetically modified plants that are used to deal with the H. punctigera larvae. These genetically modified plants produce their own Bacillus thuringiensis toxin that are toxic to the H. punctigera larvae. [19]

Insecticides

Research has shown that at the different instar (stages of development) stages of the H. punctigera, various insecticides have different levels of effectiveness with significant differences being observed through the various instar stages. (Source) [21] Endosulfan used to be one of the components used in H. punctigera insecticides before its ban in 2011. In addition to chemical pesticides, various Biopesticides have been created to manage H. punctigera in vegetation and field crops.

A particularly effective biopesticide is nucleopolyhedrovirus (NPV) which is a disease that will attack the H. punctigera larvae. While larger doses and more time is required to kill the larvae at the later instar stages, the NPV biopesticide typically kills the larvae between 4 and 7 days. The climate in which this it is used impacts the time taken for NPV to be take effect. Where in cooler climates, it can take up to 10 days to kill the H. punctigera larvae. [22]

Predators, Parasitoids and Pathogens

Spiders and Predatory insects including various species of ants, predatory beetles, predatory bugs and lacewings often feed on the H. punctigera genus of moth. While a proportion of the H. punctigera predators do not specifically prey on the H. punctigera, certain predators’ prey on specific life stages of the H. punctigera (e.g., larvae). [16]

Various parasitoids attack the H. punctigera at various life stages. These parasitoids slowly kill their host by feeding off its nutrients effectively slowing the rate of larvae feeding resulting in lower rate of crop damage. Parasitoids that attack the H. punctigera include the Trichogramma and Ichneumon genera of wasps and Cacelia genus of flies. [16]

Wasp Parasitoids spread ascovirus to larvae staged H. punctigera stunning their growth. Other natural occurring diseases that kill the Helicoverpa larvae include fungal pathogens, Nuclear Polyhedrosis Virus (NPV) and Bacillus thuringiensis which creates proteins that are toxic to the larvae when consumed. Some genetically modified bacterial pathogens are used in commercial biopesticides. A popularly used pathogen is Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) which mainly kills larval Lepidopterans when consumed. It is used in pesticides and when genetically modifying cotton plants. [16]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Noctuidae</span> Type of moths commonly known as owlet moths, cutworms or armyworms

The Noctuidae, commonly known as owlet moths, cutworms or armyworms, are a family of moths. They are considered the most controversial family in the superfamily Noctuoidea because many of the clades are constantly changing, along with the other families of the Noctuoidea. It was considered the largest family in Lepidoptera for a long time, but after regrouping Lymantriinae, Catocalinae and Calpinae within the family Erebidae, the latter holds this title now. Currently, Noctuidae is the second largest family in Noctuoidea, with about 1,089 genera and 11,772 species. This classification is still contingent, as more changes continue to appear between Noctuidae and Erebidae.

<i>Helicoverpa zea</i> Species of moth

Helicoverpa zea, commonly known as the corn earworm, is a species in the family Noctuidae. The larva of the moth Helicoverpa zea is a major agricultural pest. Since it is polyphagous during the larval stage, the species has been given many different common names, including the cotton bollworm and the tomato fruitworm. It also consumes a wide variety of other crops.

<i>Trichogramma</i> Genus of parasitic insects

Trichogramma is a genus of minute polyphagous wasps that are endoparasitoids of insect eggs. Trichogramma is one of around 80 genera from the family Trichogrammatidae, with over 200 species worldwide.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cabbage looper</span> Species of moth

The cabbage looper is a medium-sized moth in the family Noctuidae, a family commonly referred to as owlet moths. Its common name comes from its preferred host plants and distinctive crawling behavior. Cruciferous vegetables, such as cabbage, bok choy, and broccoli, are its main host plant; hence, the reference to cabbage in its common name. The larva is called a looper because it arches its back into a loop when it crawls.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bollworm</span> Index of animals with the same common name

Bollworm is the common term for a moth larva that attacks the fruiting bodies of certain crops, especially cotton. The most common moths known as bollworms are:

<i>Heliothis</i> Genus of moths

Heliothis is a genus of moths in the family Noctuidae. It was first described by Ferdinand Ochsenheimer in 1816. Some of the species have larvae which are agricultural pests on crop species such as tobacco, cotton, soybean and pigeon pea. Some species originally in this genus have been moved to other genera, see Chloridea and Helicoverpa.

<i>Helicoverpa armigera</i> Species of moth

Helicoverpa armigera is a species of Lepidoptera in the family Noctuidae. It is known as the cotton bollworm, corn earworm, Old World (African) bollworm, or scarce bordered straw. The larvae feed on a wide range of plants, including many important cultivated crops. It is a major pest in cotton and one of the most polyphagous and cosmopolitan pest species. It should not be confused with the similarly named larva of the related species Helicoverpa zea.

<i>Spodoptera litura</i> Species of moth

Spodoptera litura, otherwise known as the tobacco cutworm or cotton leafworm, is a nocturnal moth in the family Noctuidae. S. litura is a serious polyphagous pest in Asia, Oceania, and the Indian subcontinent that was first described by Johan Christian Fabricius in 1775. Its common names reference two of the most frequent host plants of the moth. In total, 87 species of host plants that are infested by S. litura are of economic importance. The species parasitize the plants through the larvae vigorous eating patterns, oftentimes leaving the leaves completely destroyed. The moth's effects are quite disastrous, destroying economically important agricultural crops and decreasing yield in some plants completely. Their potential impact on the many different cultivated crops, and subsequently the local agricultural economy, has led to serious efforts to control the pests.

<i>Agrotis ipsilon</i> Species of moth

Agrotis ipsilon, the dark sword-grass, black cutworm, greasy cutworm, floodplain cutworm or ipsilon dart, is a small noctuid moth found worldwide. The moth gets its scientific name from black markings on its forewings shaped like the letter "Y" or the Greek letter upsilon. The larvae are known as "cutworms" because they cut plants and other crops. The larvae are serious agricultural pests and feed on nearly all varieties of vegetables and many important grains.

<i>Helicoverpa</i> Genus of moths

Helicoverpa is a genus of moths in the family Noctuidae first described by David F. Hardwick in 1965. Some species are among the worst Lepidopteran agricultural pests in the world, and three species migrate long distances both with and without human transportation, mixing resistance alleles along the way.

<i>Spodoptera littoralis</i> Species of moth

Spodoptera littoralis, also referred to as the African cotton leafworm or Egyptian cotton leafworm or Mediterranean brocade, is a species of moth in the family Noctuidae. S. littoralis is found widely in Africa, Mediterranean Europe and Middle Eastern countries. It is a highly polyphagous organism that is a pest of many cultivated plants and crops. As a result, this species was assigned the label of A2 quarantine pest by the EPPO and was cautioned as a highly invasive species in the United States. The devastating impacts caused by these pests have led to the development of both biological and chemical control methods. This moth is often confused with Spodoptera litura.

<i>Peridroma saucia</i> Species of moth

Peridroma saucia, the pearly underwing or variegated cutworm, is a moth of the family Noctuidae. The species was first described by Jacob Hübner in 1808. It is found in North and South America, Europe, Asia and Africa. The variegated cutworm feeds on many plants, especially common fruits and vegetables. The moth undergoes two to four generations per year. The development of the moth slows in colder temperatures, indicative of its migratory nature. All stages of the life cycle have a developmental threshold for temperature. The moth is known to migrate to the northern regions during warmer months, returning to the southern regions when the climate becomes colder.

<i>Heliothis punctifera</i> Species of moth

Heliothis punctifera or the lesser budworm, is an Australian moth of the family Noctuidae; one of the most migratory families of insects. It is considered a pest species to agricultural crops, however, due to its inland habitat, is found to be less damaging to agricultural areas than other species of the genus.

<i>Chloridea virescens</i> Species of moth

Chloridea virescens, commonly known as the tobacco budworm, is a moth of the family Noctuidae found throughout the eastern and southwestern United States along with parts of Central America and South America.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Heliothinae</span> Subfamily of moths

Heliothinae is a small, cosmopolitan subfamily of moths in the family Noctuidae, with about 400 described species worldwide. It includes a number of economically significant agricultural pest species, such as Helicoverpa armigera and Helicoverpa zea.

<i>Helicoverpa assulta</i> Species of moth

Helicoverpa assulta, the oriental tobacco budworm, is a moth of the family Noctuidae. H. assulta adults are migratory and are found all over the Old World Tropics including Asia, Africa, and Australia.

Rhynocoris longifrons is a species of assassin bug in the family Reduviidae. It is a predator of other insects and is found in Asia. Crops on which it is found feeding on pests include pigeon pea, cardamom and peanuts. The insects are potentially useful in biological control because they are more resistant to pesticides than are the pests they consume.

Rhynocoris marginatus is a species of assassin bug in the family Reduviidae. It is a predator of other insects and is found in Asia. Crops in India on which it has been found feeding on pests include sugarcane, pigeon pea, cardamom, cotton, tea, and peanuts. The insects are potentially useful in biological control because they are more resistant to pesticides than are the pests on which they feed.

<i>Dicladispa armigera</i> Species of beetle

Dicladispa armigera is a species of leaf beetle from Southeast Asia, often known by its common name: the "rice hispa". These beetles are a well known invasive pest, and are responsible for significant crop damage across many countries. The male to female ratio is between 1:1.26 and 1:1.46.

<i>Netelia producta</i> Species of wasp

Netelia producta is a species of ichneumonid wasp in the subfamily Tryphoninae found in Australia.

References

  1. ↑ "Helicoverpa punctigera (Wallengren, 1860)". www.nzor.org.nz. Landcare Research New Zealand Ltd. Retrieved 14 May 2018.
  2. ↑ Gregg PC (1993) Pollen as a marker for migration of Helicoverpa armigera and H. punctigera (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) from western Queensland. Australian Journal of Ecology, 18, 209-219.
  3. ↑ Bailey, Peter T., ed. (2007). Pests of Field Crops and Pastures: Identification and Control. Collingwood: Csiro Publishing. p. 89. ISBN   9780643067585.
  4. ↑ Zalucki MP, Daglish G, Firempong S and Twine P (1986) The biology and ecology of Heliothis armigera (Hubner) and H. punctigera Wallengren (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) in Australia: what do we know? Australian Journal of Zoology 34, 779-844.
  5. ↑ Walter GH and Benfield MD (1994) Temporal host plant use in three polyphagous Heliothinae, with special reference to Helicoverpa punctigera (Wallengren) (Noctuidae: Lepidoptera). Austral Ecology, 19, 458-465.
  6. ↑ Zalucki M, Murray D, Gregg P, Fitt G, Twine P and Jones, C. (1994) Ecology of Helicoverpa-Armigera (Hubner) and Heliothis-Punctigera (Wallengren) in the Inland of Australia - Larval Sampling and Host-Plant Relationships During Winter and Spring. Australian Journal of Zoology, 42, 329-346.
  7. ↑ Gregg PC, Henderson GS, Del Socorro A, Le Motte K and Birchall C (2016) Polyphagy in an uncertain environment: Helicoverpa punctigera in inland Australia. Austral Ecology, 41, 819-828.
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 DPI&F Entomology Team (21 December 2018). "Understanding Helicoverpa ecology and biology in southern Queensland: Know the enemy to manage it better". Queensland The State Smart. Retrieved 20 May 2021.
  9. 1 2 3 Jones, C. (2019). "Movement Ecology of Pest Helicoverpa: Implications for Ongoing Spread". Annual Review of Entomology. 64: 277–295. doi: 10.1146/annurev-ento-011118-111959 . PMID   30296859. S2CID   52944198.
  10. 1 2 3 4 Cullen, J.M. The Reproduction and Survival of Heliothis Punctigera Wallengren in South Australia (PhD). University of Adelaide.
  11. 1 2 Yeatman, Tom. Vetch South Australia: Rural Solutions SA.
  12. ↑ Jones, L.C., Rafter, M.A. and Walter, G.H. (2021), Showier plants host more larvae: distribution and movement of generalist caterpillars among plants in the field. Ecol Entomol, 46: 514-524. https://doi.org/10.1111/een.12994
  13. ↑ Murray, D.; Zalucki, M. (1990). "EFFECT OF SOIL MOISTURE AND SIMULATED RAINFALL ON PUPAL SURVIVAL AND MOTH EMERGENCE OF HELICOVERPA PUNCTIGERA (WALLENGREN) AND H. ARMIGERA (HÜBNER) (LEPIDOPTERA: NOCTUIDAE)". Australian Journal of Entomology. 29 (3): 193–197. doi: 10.1111/j.1440-6055.1990.tb00348.x .
  14. 1 2 FYE, R.E. (1978). "Pupation preferences of bollworms, tobacco budworms, and beet armyworms and impact on mortality resulting from cultivation of irrigated fields". J. Econom.
  15. ↑ ROACHS, H.; CAMPBELRL, B. (1983). "Effects of soil compaction on bollworm (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) moth emergence". Envir.
  16. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Queensland Government (21 December 2018). "A – Z insect pests of field crops" . Retrieved 20 May 2021.
  17. 1 2 3 4 McDonald, Garry. "Native budworm Helicoverpa punctigera".
  18. 1 2 Rochester, W. (1999). The migration systems of Helicoverpa punctigera (Wallengren) and Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) in Australia (PhD). University of Queensland. doi:10.14264/uql.2015.303.
  19. 1 2 3 Downes, Sharon; Parker, Tracey; Mahon, Rod (2010). "Incipient Resistance of Helicoverpa punctigera to the Cry2Ab Bt Toxin in Bollgard IIH Cotton". PLOS ONE. 5 (9): e12567. Bibcode:2010PLoSO...512567D. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0012567 . PMC   2935350 . PMID   20830203.
  20. ↑ Fitt, G. (1994). "Cotton Pest Management: Part 3. An Australian Perspective". Annual Review of Entomology. 39 (1): 543–562. doi:10.1146/annurev.en.39.010194.002551.
  21. ↑ Duffield, Simon; Jordan, Sydney. "Evaluation of insecticides for the control of Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner) and Helicoverpa punctigera (Wallengren) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) on soybean, and the implications for field adoption". Australian Journal of Entomology.
  22. ↑ DPI&F Entomology team. "Using NPV to manage helicoverpa in field crops" (PDF).
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