Inconel

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Inconel 718 round bar Inconel 718.JPG
Inconel 718 round bar

Inconel is a nickel-chromium-based superalloy often utilized in extreme environments where components are subjected to high temperature, pressure or mechanical loads. Inconel alloys are oxidation- and corrosion-resistant. When heated, Inconel forms a thick, stable, passivating oxide layer protecting the surface from further attack. Inconel retains strength over a wide temperature range, attractive for high-temperature applications where aluminum and steel would succumb to creep as a result of thermally-induced crystal vacancies. Inconel's high-temperature strength is developed by solid solution strengthening or precipitation hardening, depending on the alloy. [1] [2]

Contents

Inconel alloys are typically used in high temperature applications. Common trade names for various Inconel alloys include:

History

The Inconel family of alloys was first developed before December 1932, when its trademark was registered by the US company International Nickel Company of Delaware and New York. [5] [6] A significant early use was found in support of the development of the Whittle jet engine, [7] during the 1940s by research teams at Henry Wiggin & Co of Hereford, England a subsidiary of the Mond Nickel Company, [8] which merged with Inco in 1928. The Hereford Works and its properties including the Inconel trademark were acquired in 1998 by Special Metals Corporation. [9]

Specific data

Alloy Solidus °C (°F) Liquidus °C (°F)
Inconel 600 [10] 1354 (2,469)1413 (2,575)
Inconel 617 [11] [12] 1332 (2,430)1377 (2,511)
Inconel 625 [13] 1290 (2,350)1350 (2,460)
Inconel 690 [14] 1343 (2,449)1377 (2,511)
Inconel 718 [15] 1260 (2,300)1336 (2,437)
Inconel X-750 [16] 1390 (2,530)1430 (2,610)

Composition

Inconel alloys vary widely in their compositions, but all are predominantly nickel, with chromium as the second element.

InconelElement, proportion by mass (%)
Ni Cr Fe Mo Nb & Ta Co Mn Cu Al Ti Si C S P B
600 [17] ≥72.0 [a] 14.0–17.06.0–10.0—≤1.0≤0.5≤0.5≤0.15≤0.015
617 [18] 44.2–61.020.0–24.0≤3.08.0–10.010.0–15.0≤0.5≤0.50.8–1.5≤0.6≤0.50.05–0.15≤0.015≤0.015≤0.006
625 [19] ≥58.020.0–23.0≤5.08.0–10.03.15–4.15≤1.0≤0.5≤0.4≤0.4≤0.5≤0.1≤0.015≤0.015
690 [20] ≥5827–317–11≤0.50≤0.50≤0.50≤0.05≤0.015
Nuclear grade 690 [20] ≥5828–317–11≤0.10≤0.50≤0.50≤0.50≤0.04≤0.015
718 [1] 50.0–55.017.0–21.0Balance2.8–3.34.75–5.5≤1.0≤0.35≤0.30.2–0.80.65–1.15≤0.35≤0.08≤0.015≤0.015≤0.006
X-750 [21] ≥70.014.0–17.05.0–9.00.7–1.2≤1.0≤1.0≤0.50.4–1.02.25–2.75≤0.5≤0.08≤0.01
  1. ↑ Includes cobalt

Properties

When heated, Inconel forms a thick and stable passivating oxide layer protecting the surface from further attack. Inconel retains strength over a wide temperature range, attractive for high-temperature applications where aluminium and steel would succumb to creep as a result of thermally induced crystal vacancies (see Arrhenius equation). Inconel's high temperature strength is developed by solid solution strengthening or precipitation strengthening, depending on the alloy. In age-hardening or precipitation-strengthening varieties, small amounts of niobium combine with nickel to form the intermetallic compound Ni3Nb or gamma double prime (γ″). Gamma prime forms small cubic crystals that inhibit slip and creep effectively at elevated temperatures. The formation of gamma-prime crystals increases over time, especially after three hours of a heat exposure of 850 °C (1,560 °F), and continues to grow after 72 hours of exposure. [22]

Strengthening mechanisms

The most prevalent hardening mechanisms for Inconel alloys are precipitate strengthening and solid solution strengthening. In Inconel alloys, one of the two often dominates. For alloys like Inconel 718, precipitate strengthening is the main strengthening mechanism. The majority of strengthening comes from the presence of gamma double prime (γ″) precipitates. [23] [24] [25] [26] Inconel alloys have a γ matrix phase with an FCC structure. [25] [27] [28] [29] γ″ precipitates are made of Ni and Nb, specifically with a Ni3Nb composition. These precipitates are fine, coherent, disk-shaped, intermetallic particles with a tetragonal structure. [24] [25] [26] [27] [30] [31] [32] [33]

Secondary precipitate strengthening comes from gamma prime (γ') precipitates. The γ' phase can appear in multiple compositions such as Ni3(Al, Ti). [24] [25] [26] The precipitate phase is coherent and has an FCC structure, like the γ matrix; [33] [27] [30] [31] [32] The γ' phase is much less prevalent than γ″. The volume fraction of the γ″ and γ' phases are approximately 15% and 4% after precipitation, respectively. [24] [25] Because of the coherency between the γ matrix and the γ' and γ″ precipitates, strain fields exist that obstruct the motion of dislocations. The prevalence of carbides with MX(Nb, Ti)(C, N) compositions also helps to strengthen the material. [25] For precipitate strengthening, elements like niobium, titanium, and tantalum play a crucial role. [34]

Because the γ″ phase is metastable, over-aging can result in the transformation of γ″ phase precipitates to delta (δ) phase precipitates, their stable counterparts. [25] [27] The δ phase has an orthorhombic structure, a Ni3(Nb, Mo, Ti) composition, and is incoherent. [35] [29] As a result, the transformation of γ″ to δ in Inconel alloys leads to the loss of coherency strengthening, making for a weaker material. That being said, in appropriate quantities, the δ phase is responsible for grain boundary pinning and strengthening. [33] [32] [29]

Another common phase in Inconel alloys is the Laves intermetallic phase. Its compositions are (Ni, Cr, Fe)x(Nb, Mo, Ti)y and NiyNb, it is brittle, and its presence can be detrimental to the mechanical behavior of Inconel alloys. [27] [33] [36] Sites with large amounts of Laves phase are prone to crack propagation because of their higher potential for stress concentration. [31] Additionally, due to its high Nb, Mo, and Ti content, the Laves phase can exhaust the matrix of these elements, ultimately making precipitate and solid-solution strengthening more difficult. [32] [36] [28]

For alloys like Inconel 625, solid-solution hardening is the main strengthening mechanism. Elements like Mo [ clarification needed ] are important in this process. Nb and Ta can also contribute to solid solution strengthening to a lesser extent. [34] In solid solution strengthening, Mo atoms are substituted into the γ matrix of Inconel alloys. Because Mo atoms have a significantly larger radius than those of Ni (209 pm and 163 pm, respectively), the substitution creates strain fields in the crystal lattice, which hinder the motion of dislocations, ultimately strengthening the material.

The combination of elemental composition and strengthening mechanisms is why Inconel alloys can maintain their favorable mechanical and physical properties, such as high strength and fatigue resistance, at elevated temperatures, specifically those up to 650°C. [23]

Machining

Inconel is a difficult metal to shape and to machine using traditional cold forming techniques due to rapid work hardening. After the first machining pass, work hardening tends to plastically deform either the workpiece or the tool on subsequent passes. For this reason, age-hardened Inconels such as 718 are typically machined using an aggressive but slow cut with a hard tool, minimizing the number of passes required. Alternatively, the majority of the machining can be performed with the workpiece in a "solutionized" form,[ clarification needed ] with only the final steps being performed after age hardening. However some claim[ who? ] that Inconel can be machined extremely quickly with very fast spindle speeds using a multifluted ceramic tool with small width of cut at high feed rates as this causes localized heating and softening in front of the flute.

External threads are machined using a lathe to "single-point" the threads or by rolling the threads in the solution treated condition (for hardenable alloys) using a screw machine. Inconel 718 can also be roll-threaded after full aging by using induction heat to 700 °C (1,290 °F) without increasing the grain size.[ citation needed ] Holes with internal threads are made by threadmilling. Internal threads can also be formed using a sinker electrical discharge machining (EDM).[ citation needed ]

Joining

Welding of some Inconel alloys (especially the gamma prime precipitation hardened family; e.g., Waspaloy and X-750) can be difficult due to cracking and microstructural segregation of alloying elements in the heat-affected zone. However, several alloys such as 625 and 718 have been designed to overcome these problems. The most common welding methods are gas tungsten arc welding and electron-beam welding. [37]

Uses

Delphin 3.0 rocket engine, used on Astra Rocket. 3D-printed in Inconel Astra Rocket Engine -- Delphin 3.0.jpg
Delphin 3.0 rocket engine, used on Astra Rocket. 3D-printed in Inconel

Inconel is often encountered in extreme environments. It is common in gas turbine blades, seals, and combustors, as well as turbocharger rotors and seals, electric submersible well pump motor shafts, high temperature fasteners, chemical processing and pressure vessels, heat exchanger tubing, steam generators and core components in nuclear pressurized water reactors, [38] natural gas processing with contaminants such as H2S and CO2, firearm sound suppressor blast baffles, and Formula One, NASCAR, NHRA, and APR, LLC exhaust systems. [39] [40] It is also used in the turbo system of the 3rd generation Mazda RX7, and the exhaust systems of high powered Wankel engine and Norton motorcycles where exhaust temperatures reach more than 1,000 °C (1,830 °F). [41] Inconel is increasingly used in the boilers of waste incinerators. [42] The Joint European Torus and DIII-D tokamaks' vacuum vessels are made of Inconel. [43] Inconel 718 is commonly used for cryogenic storage tanks, downhole shafts, wellhead parts, [44] and in the aerospace industry -- where it has become a prime candidate material for constructing heat resistant turbines. [45]

Aerospace

Automotive

Rolled Inconel was frequently used as the recording medium by engraving in black box recorders on aircraft. [64]

Alternatives to the use of Inconel in chemical applications such as scrubbers, columns, reactors, and pipes are Hastelloy, perfluoroalkoxy (PFA) lined carbon steel or fiber reinforced plastic.

Inconel alloys

Alloys of Inconel include:

In age hardening or precipitation strengthening varieties, alloying additions of aluminum and titanium combine with nickel to form the intermetallic compound Ni3(Ti,Al) or gamma prime (γ′). Gamma prime forms small cubic crystals that inhibit slip and creep effectively at elevated temperatures.

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alloy</span> Mixture or metallic solid solution composed of two or more elements

An alloy is a mixture of chemical elements of which in most cases at least one is a metallic element, although it is also sometimes used for mixtures of elements; herein only metallic alloys are described. Most alloys are metallic and show good electrical conductivity, ductility, opacity, and luster, and may have properties that differ from those of the pure elements such as increased strength or hardness. In some cases, an alloy may reduce the overall cost of the material while preserving important properties. In other cases, the mixture imparts synergistic properties such as corrosion resistance or mechanical strength.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Heat treating</span> Process of heating something to alter it

Heat treating is a group of industrial, thermal and metalworking processes used to alter the physical, and sometimes chemical, properties of a material. The most common application is metallurgical. Heat treatments are also used in the manufacture of many other materials, such as glass. Heat treatment involves the use of heating or chilling, normally to extreme temperatures, to achieve the desired result such as hardening or softening of a material. Heat treatment techniques include annealing, case hardening, precipitation strengthening, tempering, carburizing, normalizing and quenching. Although the term heat treatment applies only to processes where the heating and cooling are done for the specific purpose of altering properties intentionally, heating and cooling often occur incidentally during other manufacturing processes such as hot forming or welding.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Austenite</span> Metallic, non-magnetic allotrope of iron or a solid solution of iron, with an alloying element

Austenite, also known as gamma-phase iron (γ-Fe), is a metallic, non-magnetic allotrope of iron or a solid solution of iron with an alloying element. In plain-carbon steel, austenite exists above the critical eutectoid temperature of 1000 K (727 °C); other alloys of steel have different eutectoid temperatures. The austenite allotrope is named after Sir William Chandler Roberts-Austen (1843–1902). It exists at room temperature in some stainless steels due to the presence of nickel stabilizing the austenite at lower temperatures.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">High-strength low-alloy steel</span> Type of alloy steel

High-strength low-alloy steel (HSLA) is a type of alloy steel that provides better mechanical properties or greater resistance to corrosion than carbon steel. HSLA steels vary from other steels in that they are not made to meet a specific chemical composition but rather specific mechanical properties. They have a carbon content between 0.05 and 0.25% to retain formability and weldability. Other alloying elements include up to 2.0% manganese and small quantities of copper, nickel, niobium, nitrogen, vanadium, chromium, molybdenum, titanium, calcium, rare-earth elements, or zirconium. Copper, titanium, vanadium, and niobium are added for strengthening purposes. These elements are intended to alter the microstructure of carbon steels, which is usually a ferrite-pearlite aggregate, to produce a very fine dispersion of alloy carbides in an almost pure ferrite matrix. This eliminates the toughness-reducing effect of a pearlitic volume fraction yet maintains and increases the material's strength by refining the grain size, which in the case of ferrite increases yield strength by 50% for every halving of the mean grain diameter. Precipitation strengthening plays a minor role, too. Their yield strengths can be anywhere between 250–590 megapascals (36,000–86,000 psi). Because of their higher strength and toughness HSLA steels usually require 25 to 30% more power to form, as compared to carbon steels.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Creep (deformation)</span> Tendency of a solid material to move slowly or deform permanently under mechanical stress

In materials science, creep is the tendency of a solid material to undergo slow deformation while subject to persistent mechanical stresses. It can occur as a result of long-term exposure to high levels of stress that are still below the yield strength of the material. Creep is more severe in materials that are subjected to heat for long periods and generally increases as they near their melting point.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Maraging steel</span> Steel known for strength and toughness

Maraging steels are steels that are known for possessing superior strength and toughness without losing ductility. Aging refers to the extended heat-treatment process. These steels are a special class of very-low-carbon ultra-high-strength steels that derive their strength not from carbon, but from precipitation of intermetallic compounds. The principal alloying element is 15 to 25 wt% nickel. Secondary alloying elements, which include cobalt, molybdenum and titanium, are added to produce intermetallic precipitates.

Precipitation hardening, also called age hardening or particle hardening, is a heat treatment technique used to increase the yield strength of malleable materials, including most structural alloys of aluminium, magnesium, nickel, titanium, and some steels, stainless steels, and duplex stainless steel. In superalloys, it is known to cause yield strength anomaly providing excellent high-temperature strength.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Superalloy</span> Alloy with higher durability than normal metals

A superalloy, or high-performance alloy, is an alloy with the ability to operate at a high fraction of its melting point. Key characteristics of a superalloy include mechanical strength, thermal creep deformation resistance, surface stability, and corrosion and oxidation resistance.

Titanium aluminide, commonly gamma titanium, is an intermetallic chemical compound. It is lightweight and resistant to oxidation and heat, but has low ductility. The density of γ-TiAl is about 4.0 g/cm3. It finds use in several applications including aircraft, jet engines, sporting equipment and automobiles. The development of TiAl based alloys began circa 1970. The alloys have been used in these applications only since about 2000.

Boriding, also called boronizing, is the process by which boron is added to a metal or alloy. It is a type of surface hardening. In this process boron atoms are diffused into the surface of a metal component. The resulting surface contains metal borides, such as iron borides, nickel borides, and cobalt borides, As pure materials, these borides have extremely high hardness and wear resistance. Their favorable properties are manifested even when they are a small fraction of the bulk solid. Boronized metal parts are extremely wear resistant and will often last two to five times longer than components treated with conventional heat treatments such as hardening, carburizing, nitriding, nitrocarburizing or induction hardening. Most borided steel surfaces will have iron boride layer hardnesses ranging from 1200-1600 HV. Nickel-based superalloys such as Inconel and Hastalloys will typically have nickel boride layer hardnesses of 1700-2300 HV.

In metallurgy, solid solution strengthening is a type of alloying that can be used to improve the strength of a pure metal. The technique works by adding atoms of one element to the crystalline lattice of another element, forming a solid solution. The local nonuniformity in the lattice due to the alloying element makes plastic deformation more difficult by impeding dislocation motion through stress fields. In contrast, alloying beyond the solubility limit can form a second phase, leading to strengthening via other mechanisms.

Nickel aluminide refers to either of two widely used intermetallic compounds, Ni3Al or NiAl, but the term is sometimes used to refer to any nickel–aluminium alloy. These alloys are widely used because of their high strength even at high temperature, low density, corrosion resistance, and ease of production. Ni3Al is of specific interest as a precipitate in nickel-based superalloys, where it is called the γ' (gamma prime) phase. It gives these alloys high strength and creep resistance up to 0.7–0.8 of its melting temperature. Meanwhile, NiAl displays excellent properties such as lower density and higher melting temperature than those of Ni3Al, and good thermal conductivity and oxidation resistance. These properties make it attractive for special high-temperature applications like coatings on blades in gas turbines and jet engines. However, both these alloys have the disadvantage of being quite brittle at room temperature, with Ni3Al remaining brittle at high temperatures as well. To address this problem, has been shown that Ni3Al can be made ductile when manufactured in single-crystal form rather than in polycrystalline form.

A cryogenic treatment is the process of treating workpieces to cryogenic temperatures in order to remove residual stresses and improve wear resistance in steels and other metal alloys, such as aluminum. In addition to seeking enhanced stress relief and stabilization, or wear resistance, cryogenic treatment is also sought for its ability to improve corrosion resistance by precipitating micro-fine eta carbides, which can be measured before and after in a part using a quantimet.

Electron-beam additive manufacturing, or electron-beam melting (EBM) is a type of additive manufacturing, or 3D printing, for metal parts. The raw material is placed under a vacuum and fused together from heating by an electron beam. This technique is distinct from selective laser sintering as the raw material fuses have completely melted. Selective Electron Beam Melting (SEBM) emerged as a powder bed-based additive manufacturing (AM) technology and was brought to market in 1997 by Arcam AB Corporation headquartered in Sweden.

Oxide dispersion strengthened alloys (ODS) are alloys that consist of a metal matrix with small oxide particles dispersed within it. They have high heat resistance, strength, and ductility. Alloys of nickel are the most common but includes iron aluminum alloys.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Selective laser melting</span> 3D printing technique

Selective laser melting (SLM) is one of many proprietary names for a metal additive manufacturing (AM) technology that uses a bed of powder with a source of heat to create metal parts. Also known as direct metal laser sintering (DMLS), the ASTM standard term is powder bed fusion (PBF). PBF is a rapid prototyping, 3D printing, or additive manufacturing technique designed to use a high power-density laser to melt and fuse metallic powders together.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Inconel 625</span> Nickel-based superalloy

Inconel Alloy 625 is a nickel-based superalloy that possesses high strength properties and resistance to elevated temperatures. It also demonstrates remarkable protection against corrosion and oxidation. Its ability to withstand high stress and a wide range of temperatures, both in and out of water, as well as being able to resist corrosion while being exposed to highly acidic environments makes it a fitting choice for nuclear and marine applications.

Havar, or UNS R30004, is an alloy of cobalt, possessing a very high mechanical strength. It can be heat-treated. It is highly resistant to corrosion and is non-magnetic. It is biocompatible. It has high fatigue resistance. It is a precipitation hardening superalloy.

Aluminium–scandium alloys (AlSc) are aluminum alloys that consist largely of aluminium (Al) and traces of scandium (Sc) as the main alloying elements. In principle, aluminium alloys strengthened with additions of scandium are very similar to traditional nickel-base superalloys in that both are strengthened by coherent, coarsening resistant precipitates with an ordered L12 structure. But Al–Sc alloys contain a much lower volume fraction of precipitates, and the inter-precipitate distance is much smaller than in their nickel-base counterparts. In both cases however, the coarsening resistant precipitates allow the alloys to retain their strength at high temperatures.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Precipitate-free zone</span> Region around a material grain boundary free of solid impurities

In materials science, a precipitate-free zone (PFZ) refers to microscopic localized regions around grain boundaries that are free of precipitates. It is a common phenomenon that arises in polycrystalline materials where heterogeneous nucleation of precipitates is the dominant nucleation mechanism. This is because grain boundaries are high-energy surfaces that act as sinks for vacancies, causing regions adjacent to a grain boundary to be devoid of vacancies. As it is energetically favorable for heterogeneous nucleation to occur preferentially around defect-rich sites such as vacancies, nucleation of precipitates is impeded in the vacancy-free regions immediately adjacent to grain boundaries

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