The Tesla Model S is a battery-electric, four-door full-size car produced by the American automaker Tesla since 2012. The automaker's longest-produced model and second vehicle, critics have called the Model S one of the most significant and influential electric cars in the industry.
All versions of the Model S come equipped with a single-speed transmission. The car initially used an alternating currentinduction motor, but in 2019, Tesla substituted it with a permanent magnet synchronousreluctance unit. Constructed mostly of aluminum, the Model S shares 30percent of its components with the Model X—a crossover SUV that was introduced in 2015. Over the course of its production, it has undergone several updates, the most prominent ones occurring in 2016 and 2021. These updates have typically included modifications to the motor, such as changes to power or torque, as well as revised exterior elements and refreshed interior features. One such change included the introduction of Tesla Autopilot—a partial vehicle automation advanced driver-assistance system—which was released in 2015. To charge the Model S, Tesla operates a network of fast-charging stations.
In 2015, the Model S was the world's best-selling plug-in electric vehicle. It has been the subject of multiple fires, the first in 2013. The car has earned numerous accolades, including being named one of the Best 25 Inventions of the Year 2012 by Time and receiving the Tech Car of the Year for 2012 award from CNET. In 2014, The Daily Telegraph described the Model S as a "car that changed the world".[6]Road & Track argued that, with the introduction of the Model S Plaid—the high-performance version of the vehicle—and features such as the yoke steering wheel, Tesla managed to turn the Model S into "perhaps one of the worst [cars in the world]."[7]
Development
In January 2007, a year before the company introduced its first vehicle, the battery-electricRoadster, the American automaker Tesla Motors opened a facility in Michigan, employing sixty people to work on new projects, including a four-door sedan.[8][9] Beginning development under the codename "WhiteStar",[10] Tesla initially planned for the car to have two powertrain options. The first would be a battery-electric version with an all-electric range of 200 miles (320km). The second was to be a hybrid electric vehicle with a range extender, capable of traveling between 40 and 50 miles (64 and 80km) on electric power before a small gasoline engine would recharge its batteries and power the vehicle, giving it a total range of 400 miles (640km). However, at the GoingGreen conference in September 2008, Elon Musk—the chief executive officer of Tesla[11]—announced that the company would exclusively produce battery-electric vehicles.[12]
In 2007, Musk appointed Henrik Fisker, known for his work with Aston Martin,[13][14] as the lead designer of the WhiteStar project.[15][16] Fisker signed an US$875,000 contract to design the car.[17] The company requested that he design a "sleek, four-door sedan" priced from $50,000–$70,000 (equivalent to $73,471–$102,860 in 2023), and that it be ready between late 2009 and early 2010. Fisker owned a design studio in Orange County, California, which the Tesla employees frequently visited to view his designs. However, their reactions were generally negative; Ron Lloyd, the vice president of the WhiteStar project, described Fisker's designs as "terrible [...] some of the early styles were like a giant egg". When Musk rejected his designs, Fisker attributed the decision to the project's physical constraints, saying, "they wouldn't let me make the car sexy".[18] Shortly after the meetings, Fisker started his own company[18] and debuted the Fisker Karma in 2008, at the North American International Auto Show.[19][20] Musk subsequently filed a lawsuit against Fisker, accusing him of stealing Tesla's design ideas and using the $875,000 to launch his own company.[18][21] Fisker won the lawsuit in November 2008, and an arbitrator ordered Tesla to reimburse Fisker's legal fees and declared Tesla's claims to be without merit.[18][22]
A dispute between Musk and Fisker arose after the latter started his own company and began producing the Karma (pictured).
A small team of Tesla engineers went to a Mercedes-Benzcar dealership where they test-drove a CLS and an E-Class. Both cars shared a chassis, and the engineers assessed different aspects of the two vehicles, evaluating their positives and negatives. They ultimately preferred the CLS's styling and used it as the baseline for the Model S. After purchasing a CLS, they disassembled it, modified the battery pack of a Tesla Roadster, cut out the CLS's floor, and integrated it with the battery pack. They subsequently put all of its electronics and systems in the car's trunk and replaced the interior. After three months of development, the engineers completed a battery-electric version of the CLS. They frequently tested the car on public roads. It had 120 miles (190km) of all-electric range per charge and weighed more than the Roadster.[23]
In August 2008, Musk appointed Franz von Holzhausen as the project's lead designer.[24][25] Von Holzhausen reviewed Fisker's sketches and clay models but was unimpressed with what he saw, stating that "it was clear[...] that the people [who] had been working on this were novices". To save money, Tesla established its design center within a SpaceX factory—a company also owned by Musk. As von Holzhausen began designing the exterior of the Model S, Tesla engineers initiated a project to construct another electric version of a CLS. They stripped it to its core, removed the body structure, and extended the wheelbase by four inches (10cm) to align with early Model-S specifications. Within three months, von Holzhausen had designed the production Model S's exterior, and the engineers had begun building a prototype around the design.[26] Given the battery pack's substantial weight, Musk and the team began efforts to minimize the weight of other components. To address this issue, Musk opted to use aluminum instead of steel, stating that the non-battery-pack portion of the vehicle must be lighter than equivalent gasoline vehicles. He noted that the primary challenge was that if aluminum were not used in its construction, the car's performance would be compromised.[27] To accelerate the development of the Model S, one group of engineers worked during the day, while another arrived late evening and worked through the night, both operating within a 3,000 square feet (280m2) tent in the SpaceX factory.[28]
Tesla debuted a prototype version of the Model S in Hawthorne, California, on March 26, 2009.[29][30][31] Tesla initially intended to manufacture the Model S in Albuquerque, New Mexico, and later in San Jose, California, but later withdrew from both plans mainly due to financial problems.[32][33] During the Great Recession, American automaker General Motors decided to abandon the NUMMI facility in 2009, with Toyota soon following.[34][35] However, a month after the last car was produced at the manufacturing line in April 2010, Toyota and Tesla announced a partnership and the transfer of the factory. Tesla agreed to purchase a significant portion of the facility for $42million (equivalent $57million in 2023), while Toyota invested $50million (equivalent to $68million in 2023) in Tesla for a 2.5percent stake in the company.[36][37]
During the early 2010s, Musk expanded the engineering teams for the Model S, while von Holzhausen grew the design teams in Los Angeles. The engineers operated in a lab with forty-five personnel. The "alpha" version of the Model S, featuring newly stamped body parts from the Fremont factory, a revamped battery pack, and improved power electronics, was completed in the basement of an office in Palo Alto, California. Twelve of the cars were produced; some were sent to suppliers such as Bosch, while others were preserved for testing and design alterations.[38] On June 22, 2012, Tesla invited its employees, select customers, and the press to watch the first production Model S roll off the manufacturing line in Fremont.[39][40]
Design
The Model S (left) and Model X (right) share a platform and 30percent of their parts.
A cast aluminum cross-member attached to the vehicle's body structure supports the front suspension and electrically assisted rack-and-pinion steering system. At the rear, a cast subframe is connected to the body using four rubber-isolated mounts to reduce vibrations.[71] The front suspension features a double control arm design, while the rear suspension uses a multi-link arrangement, each with an air spring for improved ride comfort.[71][72] This chassis also features disc brake components produced by Brembo.[71][73] Since the Model S lacks a front engine, Tesla implemented a "frunk",[note 3] which has 5.3 cubic feet (150L) of storage.[74][75] The car's rear trunk possesses 26.6 cubic feet (750L) of storage with the rear seats upright and 58.1 cubic feet (1,650L) when the seats are folded down.[76][77] Initially, the seats and steering wheel of the Model S were offered in both synthetic and non-synthetic leather options. However, in 2017, following a request from People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals to become the first cruelty-free automaker, Tesla switched exclusively to synthetic leather.[78][79][80]
Beginning in 2012, three battery pack configurations of the Model S were offered as 2013 model year[note 4] vehicles.[90] Initially, a 40kWh lithium-ion model was planned as the entry-level version, but Tesla announced in 2013 that this version would not be produced.[91] The motor of this version was to produce a power output of 175 kilowatts (235hp) and a torque of 420 newton-metres (310lb⋅ft).[92][93][94] Instead, a more powerful model with a 60kWh model—with its output limited to 40kWh via software—was introduced to substitute the 40kWh model.[92] Its motor generates 225 kilowatts (302hp) and 430 newton-metres (317lb⋅ft),[95] providing it with a range of 208 miles (335km).[96] Two versions of the 85kWh model were created: one with specifications similar to the aforementioned Signature model, and a performance version, the "P85", with specifications akin to the Signature Performance.[94][68]
In 2014, Tesla discontinued the P85, replacing it with the P85D ("D" stands for "dual").[97][98] Tesla introduced a front motor in the P85D, in addition to the existing rear motor used in previous models. This configuration powers both the front and rear wheels, resulting in an all-wheel drive powertrain.[99][100] The two motors produce a combined output of 515 kilowatts (691hp) and 931 newton-metres (687lb⋅ft), giving it a range of 275 miles (443km).[101][102] Replacing the 60kWh model,[103][104] the 70D was introduced as a 2015 model year vehicle. It features dual motors that produce a combined output of 383 kilowatts (514hp) and 387 newton-metres (285lb⋅ft), allowing it to have a range of 240 miles (390km).[105][106][107] A single-motor version of the 70kWh model was also produced, with an output of 235 kilowatts (315hp) and 325 newton-metres (240lb⋅ft), giving it a range of 210 miles (340km).[107]
In 2015, Tesla launched the standard 90D and the performance P90D to succeed the 85 kWh model and the P85D, respectively.[108][109][110] The 90D's motor produces 311 kilowatts (417hp) and 658 newton-metres (485lb⋅ft),[111][112] and a range of 288 miles (463km).[112][113] The P90D's dual motors generate a combined output of 568 kilowatts (762hp) and 967 newton-metres (713lb⋅ft),[114][115] sufficient to give the car a range of 268 miles (431km).[115][116][117]
2016–2019: First major update
The Model S and its prominently revised front fascia
Rear view
In April 2016, Tesla implemented a facelift for the Model S, releasing them as 2017 model year vehicles.[118][119] Its most prominent update lies in its front fascia, where the previous black grille has been replaced by a continuation of the body, leaving only a thin gap between the leading edge of the hood and the bumper, which houses the Tesla logo.[120][121] The updated model also includes restyled, full-LEDadaptive headlights that turn with the car to enhance visibility at night.[120]
That same year, Tesla reintroduced the 60kWh model and introduced an all-wheel-drive version, the 60D.[122][123] The former produces 235 kilowatts (315hp) of power and 325 newton-metres (240lb⋅ft) of torque, giving it a range of 210 miles (340km).[124][125][126] The latter has dual motors that produce 242 kilowatts (324hp) and 430 newton-metres (317lb⋅ft), with a range of 253 miles (407km).[127] Customers also had the option to upgrade the battery capacity to 75kWh through an over-the-air update, extending the range by 40 miles (64km).[124] In March 2017, Tesla discontinued the 60kWh model to distinguish its premium cars from the cheaper options, making the 75kWh model the new entry-level offering.[128][129]
In late 2016, Tesla introduced the P100D as a replacement for the P90D.[130] The P100D's motors generate a combined output 510 kilowatts (680hp) and 1,072 newton-metres (791lb⋅ft), allowing it to have a range of 315 miles (507km).[131][132][133] In early 2017, Tesla introduced the 100D.[134] Its dual motors deliver 360 kilowatts (483hp) and 660 newton-metres (487lb⋅ft), and it has a range of 335 miles (539km).[135][136] Midway through 2017, Tesla discontinued the 90D.[137] Tesla subsequently ended production of the rear-wheel-drive 75kWh model in late 2017.[138] In 2019, Tesla also replaced the 75D, 100D, and P100D variants as part of the company's shift towards a revamped model range.[139][140]
2019–present: Simplified naming scheme
The Model S in its 2021 design
In favor of a more streamlined lineup, in 2019, the previous 75D, 100D, and P100D models were replaced with the Standard Range, Long Range, and Performance models, respectively;[140] however, the Standard Range model was discontinued later that year.[141] The Model S Long Range, equipped with a 100kWh battery, has dual motors that generate a total output of 350 kilowatts (469hp) and 730 newton-metres (540lb⋅ft), giving the Long Range a range of 375 miles (604km).[142][143] The Performance model also has a 100kWh battery. Its dual motors produce a combined output of 562 kilowatts (754hp) and 931 newton-metres (687lb⋅ft); it has a range of 365 miles (587km).[144] For 2020, the Long Range model was replaced with the Long Range Plus.[145] Its dual motors deliver a combined output of 311 kilowatts (417hp) and 658 newton-metres (485lb⋅ft). It has a range of 400 miles (640km).[150]
2024 Model S Plaid
In 2021, Tesla launched a significant update to the Model S, known internally as the "Palladium" project, which involved an overhaul of most of its components. The revised Model S was revealed in January 2021.[151][152][153] At its debut, the updated Model S had the lowest drag coefficient of any automobile, with a value of 0.208.[154][155] The updated Long Range delivers 500 kilowatts (670hp). It achieves a range of 405 miles (652km).[156] The Plaid, which features a 95kWh battery,[157] has—in contrast to all models previous—a tri-motor, all-wheel drive layout. The trio produce a total output of 760 kilowatts (1,020hp) and 1,050 newton-metres (770lb⋅ft), providing the car with a 0 to 60mph (97km/h) acceleration of 1.98 seconds and a maximum speed of 200mph (320km/h), with a range of 390 miles (630km).[158][159][160] In 2023, Tesla reintroduced the Standard Range model, which has a range of 370 miles (600km).[161][162]
Technology
Features
Production dashboard with 12.3-inch(310mm) main dashboard digital display (left) and central 17-inch(430mm) touchscreen control panel (right)
The instrument panel is positioned directly before the driver and features a 12.3-inch(310mm) liquid crystal display electronic instrument cluster.[49][163] Initially, the infotainment control touchscreen featured a 17-inch(430mm) multi-touch display[164] divided into four sections. The top section shows status icons and offers quick access to features like charging, HomeLink, Driver Profiles, vehicle information, and Bluetooth. Below that, the second section provides access to various apps, such as Media, Navigation, Energy, Web, Camera, and Phone. The central viewing area displays two active apps, split into upper and lower areas, with most apps expandable to fill the entire screen. The bottom section contains controls and settings for the vehicle, including doors, locks, lights, temperature settings, and a secondary volume control.[165]
Originally, the Model S's touchscreen was powered by a NvidiaTegra 3 3D Visual Computing Module (VCM),[166][167] with a separate Nvidia Tegra 2 VCM handling the instrument cluster.[168] Around 2018, Tesla upgraded these two Tegra System-on-a-Chip (SoC) units to a single Intel Atom–based SoC, which powered both the main touchscreen display and the instrument cluster.[169] With the Palladium refresh, Tesla further updated the system, switching to a horizontal touchscreen orientation and an AMD Ryzen-based SoC. The touchscreen includes features like driver-side climate control, My App, the app launcher, recent apps, passenger-side climate control, and volume control.[note 5] Features, such as lock and unlock, trunk, glove box, and mirrors, could be controlled from the touchscreen.[170] Also for the 2021 refresh, Tesla implemented a "yoke" steering wheel.[171][note 6]
Autopilot
In 2014, Tesla introduced Autopilot, an advanced driver-assistance system developed by the automaker that amounts to partial vehicle automation.[174][175] Every Model S produced from September 2014 onward included the Autopilot hardware,[176] and it was officially released in October 2015 as a software update.[177][178] Autopilot uses cameras, radar and ultrasound to detect road signs, lane markings, obstacles, pedestrians, cyclists, motorcyclists, traffic lights, and other vehicles. Additionally, Autopilot includes adaptive cruise control, lane centering, auto lane changing, autoparking and many other semi-autonomous driving and parking capabilities.[179][180] The Model S's operating systems are partly built using open-source software (OSS), which is publicly available. Tesla uses OSS like Linux, the GNU toolchain, Buildroot, and community projects like Ubuntu.[181] From 2021, Tesla began using a system known as "Tesla Vision", which relies solely on cameras, replacing the previous radar-based sensors.[182] In 2023, Tesla discontinued the ultrasonic system as part of its shift towards Tesla Vision.[183]
The Autopilot system has been the subject of criticism. Following a crash in Florida, the National Transportation Safety Board found that the driver's usage of the system "indicated an over-reliance on the automation and a lack of understanding of the system limitations".[184] Tesla has faced accusations of misleading advertising, with critics alleging that the company led consumers to believe the vehicles were fully autonomous. Tesla has defended itself by arguing that the state's prolonged lack of objection to the Autopilot branding implied approval of its advertising practices.[185][note 7] In a 2019 survey by Bloomberg News, hundreds of Tesla owners reported experiencing dangerous behaviors with Autopilot, including phantom braking, lane departures, and failure to stop for road hazards.[186] Users also noted issues like sudden software crashes, unexpected shutdowns, collisions with off-ramp barriers, radar failures, abrupt swerving, tailgating, and inconsistent speed changes.[187]
Tesla has devised numerous ways to charge the Model S: the 240-volt home wall charger provides 100kilometers(62miles) of range per hour of charging, while the mobile connector, intended for use away from home, offers 50kilometers(31miles) of range per hour.[188] Tesla partnered with businesses to install Tesla Wall Connectors to provide a public charging network called Tesla Destination.[189] The units are provided to the businesses by Tesla for free or at a cheap price.[190] The business is responsible for the cost of electricity. Some businesses limit them to customers, employees, or residents only.[191] In late 2012, Tesla began operating a network of 480-volt charging stations, dubbed "Superchargers".[192][193]
Tesla initially planned for the Model S to allow fast battery swapping.[194][195] In 2013, the company demonstrated a battery-swap operation that took about ninety seconds—roughly half the time needed to refill a gas tank.[196][197][198] While Tesla initially planned to make battery swapping widely available, they reportedly abandoned the idea due to a perceived lack of customer interest.[199][200] Jeremy Michalek, a mechanical engineering professor, suggested that the high cost, bulkiness, and resource demands of batteries made the creation of extensive networks of swappable packs—requiring storage, charging, and maintenance—economically and environmentally impractical.[201]Critics have accused Tesla of exploiting California's zero-emission vehicle credit system by introducing the battery-swap program without ever making it accessible to the public.[202] In 2020, Tesla announced plans to integrate the batteries into the vehicle's body to enhance strength and reduce weight and cost.[203]
Environmental impact
Tesla claimed that the Gigafactory 1 is able to turn old batteries into new ones.
A 2015 study by the Union of Concerned Scientists (UCS) concluded that in U.S. regions where the Model S is popular, its 68percent higher manufacturing emissions are offset within a few years of average driving.[206] However, the UCS report assumes that electric materials are recycled at rates similar to other cars and excludes the issue of battery disposal due to limited data on recycling practices and future intentions at the time.[206] Over their lifecycle, electric vehicles—like the Model S—emit about half as much CO2 as comparable fossil fuel cars.[207]
All Tesla Model S' initial lithium-ion batteries contained nickel and small amounts of cobalt,[208] which have a high environmental impact due to resource depletion, ecological toxicity, and extraction processes.[209] By early 2022, almost half of Tesla's overall sales had shifted to a different battery type (LFP battery), which does not contain cobalt or nickel.[210]
In 2021, Tesla wrote in its Impact Report that it recycles all returned battery packs and stated that Gigafactory 1 is able to recycle up to 92percent of the elements from old batteries, moving towards a "closed loop" system where old batteries are turned into new ones. In 2020, the company recycled significant amounts of metals: 1,300tons of nickel, 400tons of copper, and 80tons of cobalt.[204][205] Tesla's report states that most of its batteries are recycled in some form; however, according to Vice, it does not specify that 92percent of each individual battery is fully recycled. The company has articulated an ultimate goal of achieving "high recovery rates, low costs, and low environmental impact" through its recycling program, though it does not provide details on its current progress toward this.[205] A 2021 scientific study showed that the Tesla Model S is a profitable commercial battery pack for recycling due to its low disassembly costs and high revenues from cobalt recovery.[211] The materials scientist Dana Thompson from the University of Leicester cautions that the recycling of batteries may pose significant hazards. According to Thompson, if a Tesla cell is punctured too deeply or at an inappropriate location, it risks short-circuiting, potentially leading to combustion and the release of toxic fumes.[212]
The Model S is the company's second vehicle and is, as of 2022, its longest-produced model.[213][214] The Model S has been produced at the 5,400,000 square feet (500,000m2)Fremont, California, facility since June 2012;[215][216] but from August 2013, for European countries, final assembly was carried out at Tesla's facilities in Tilburg, the Netherlands.[217] The aim of the Tilburg factory was to shorten delivery times for customers in Britain and the EU, improve product quality, and establish the automaker's presence in Europe by producing the Model S and the Model X.[218] The production of both the Model S and Model X at the Tilburg facility ceased in early 2021. According to the Dutch newspaper NU.nl, the 2021 refresh introduced changes to the production process that made it impossible to complete final assembly at the Tilburg location.[219] Tesla initially projected it would produce 1,000 units per month, aiming for a total of 5,000 units by the end of 2012. For 2013, Tesla aimed to quadruple that. Tesla built its 1,000th Model S by October 31, 2012,[220] and delivered 2,650 units by the end of the year.[221] In the first half of the subsequent year, 10,050 units were delivered to customers.[222]
The Model S was the first vehicle by Tesla produced at the Fremont facility.[223] It was followed by the Model X in 2015, the Model 3 in 2017 and the Model Y in 2020.[224][225][226] These cars form the "S3XY" acronym.[227][228] In 2015, the Model S was the world's best-selling plug-in electric vehicle,[229] with Tesla selling 50,366 in that year.[230] Since its inception, the Model S has been equipped with batteries supplied by the electronics company Panasonic in Japan.[231][232][233] Since January 2017, the car's batteries have also been produced at Gigafactory Nevada.[234] European retail deliveries began between August and September 2013, with Norway,[235] Switzerland,[236] the Netherlands,[236] Belgium, France, and Germany.[237] The first Australian delivery took place in Sydney on December 9, 2014.[238][239] Deliveries to the mainland Chinese market began on April 22, 2014,[240] followed by Hong Kong in July 2014.[241][242] Deliveries to the United Kingdom began in June 2014.[243]
In a National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) testing conducted in 2015, the Model S received a five-star rating.[245] Tesla subsequently claimed that—based on the details of the test—it actually achieved 5.4 stars, prompting the NHTSA to release a statement reaffirming that it does not award more than five stars, and that Tesla was "misleading the public" by claiming in their marketing that the NHTSA had awarded them a higher rating.[246][247]
As of February 2024, the Model S has had seven product recalls. On June 14, 2013, Tesla recalled Model S vehicles manufactured between May 10, 2013, and June 8, 2013, due to improper methods for aligning the left hand seat back striker to the bracket, which could weaken the weld between the bracket and frame. Musk stated that the weld had not detached on any car, there had been no complaints, and no injuries had occurred.[248] In early January 2014, Tesla issued a recall for Model S vehicles from 2013 due to the risk of overheating with the adapter, cord, or wall outlet during charging. Following the recall, Jerome Guillen, Tesla's vice president of sales, announced that nearly all Model S adapters had already been updated via over-the-air software to address the charging problem. Tesla noted that the recall impacted nearly all Model S vehicles and adapters produced in 2013.[249] Tesla announced a voluntary recall on November 20, 2015, of all of its 90,000 Model S vehicles, to check for a possible defect in the cars' front seat belt assemblies. The problem was raised by one customer in Europe. Tesla's resulting investigation was unable to identify a root cause for the failure, and the company decided to examine every car. Tesla reported that no accidents or injuries were related to the problem.[250]
On January 20, 2017, Tesla recalled every Model S manufactured from 2012 because of defective Takata airbags. This recall not only impacted the Model S but also affected approximately 652,000 other vehicles from other automakers across the United States, which, at the time, was the largest automotive recall in the country's history.[251] On April 20, 2017, Tesla issued a worldwide recall of 53,000 of the 76,000 Model S and Model X vehicles sold in 2016 due to faulty parking brakes. Tesla assured that this issue was unlikely to cause safety problems and had not resulted in any accidents or injuries. Despite this, the company asked customers to have their cars inspected, a process that took about forty-five minutes. Approximately fivepercent of the vehicles were affected, and Brembo, the supplier of the defective part, would cover the repair costs.[252][253] All 123,000 Model S cars manufactured before April 2016 were recalled on March 30, 2018, due to excessive corrosion of the bolts which secure the power steering, particularly those cars used in cold countries where roads are salted. Tesla's stock dropped nearly fourpercent in after-hours trading on Thursday following the announcement of the Model S recall.[254]
In December 2021, 119,009 Model S vehicles produced between 2017 and 2020 were recalled because of the possibility of latch failure allowing front hoods to open unexpectedly. The recall, according to the company, affected around 14percent of the Model S vehicles.[255] In February 2024, Tesla recalled over twomillion Tesla vehicles in the United States due to the compact size of the warning lights on the instrument panel. Documents indicated that the recall was issued to enhance warnings and alerts for drivers. The NHTSA reported that the font size of the brake, park, and antilock brake warning lights was smaller than mandated by federal safety standards. This size made information difficult to read, thereby increasing the risk of a collision.[256]
A fire involving a Tesla Model S occurred on October 1, 2013, after the vehicle struck metal debris on Washington State Route 167 in Kent, Washington.[257] The driver was alerted by the onboard system and was able to safely exit the highway, stop the car, and leave the vehicle without injury.[258] Tesla later explained that the fire was triggered by a "direct impact of a large metallic object" to one of the car's 16 battery modules. The vehicle's design, which included firewalls separating the modules, limited the fire to a small section at the front of the car.[257] The debris that caused the fire was identified as a "curved section" that had fallen off a truck and was recovered near the site of the accident. According to Tesla, the debris pierced a 3-inch (80mm) hole through the vehicle's 0.25in (6mm) armor plate, with an estimated force of 25 short tons (23t). Built-in vents directed the flames away from the passenger compartment, preventing them from entering the cabin.[258]
On October 24, 2013, the NHTSA announced that it had not found evidence suggesting the fire resulted from a vehicle safety defect or noncompliance with federal safety standards.[259] However, in the following month, the NHTSA initiated a preliminary evaluation to assess the potential risks associated with undercarriage strikes on 2013 Tesla Model S vehicles.[260] On March 28, 2014, the investigation was closed, with the NHTSA stating that "Tesla's revision of vehicle ride height and addition of increased underbody protection should reduce both the frequency of underbody strikes and the resultant fire risk".[261][262]
Subsequent fires
On November 6, 2013, another fire occurred when a Tesla Model S struck a tow hitch on the road, causing damage to the underside of the vehicle.[263] In response to these incidents, Tesla extended its vehicle warranty to cover fire damage and issued a software update to increase the car's ground clearance at highway speeds.[260] In early February 2014, another fire incident was reported in Toronto, Canada. The Model S was parked in a garage and was not charging at the time. The cause of the fire remains undetermined.[264][265] Tesla stated, "in this particular case, we don't yet know the precise cause, but have definitively determined that it did not originate in the battery, the charging system, the adapter or the electrical receptacle, as these components were untouched by the fire".[266][267]
On January 1, 2016, a 2014 Model S caught fire in Norway while supercharging unsupervised. The vehicle was totally destroyed but nobody was injured.[268] An investigation by the Norwegian Accident Investigation Board concluded that the fire started within the car, but the exact cause could not be determined.[269] In March 2016, Tesla announced that their own investigation found that the fire was caused by a short circuit in the vehicle's distribution box, but the extent of the damage made it impossible to determine the exact cause.[270]
Reception and legacy
The Model S has been recognized by several critics as an influential electric car.[271][272][273] In a 2014 review for the newspaper The Sunday Times, Nick Rufford remarked, "the Model S represents the last throw of the electric dice[...] if this vehicle can't persuade people to ditch petrol and switch to battery power, no car can".[271] In December 2014, a journalist from The Daily Telegraph called the Model S "a car that changed the world".[6]The Daily Telegraph, in 2014, also called it "the most important car of the last 20 years".[274] The BBC-owned magazine Top Gear described it as "one of the most appealing electric vehicles in the world[...] and one that almost single-handedly forced mainstream manufacturers to embrace electricity".[275] Keith Barry of Consumer Reports mentioned that "the introduction of certain features, such as a yoke-style steering wheel, has distracted from the flagship sedan's underlying brilliance, as has Musk's public image".[note 9][276]Consumer Reports additionally pointed out that the success of the Model S prompted other automakers to rethink how they design and market their vehicles.[276] The magazine Car and Driver noted that the Model S was the "first long-range, widely desired electric vehicle" when it was released, adding that "mainstream automakers[...] [struggled] to catch up".[145]
The Model S has received mixed reviews. Samuel Gibbs from the newspaper The Guardian referred to it as a "swish saloon car", writing that, unlike many other electric vehicles, it did not resemble "a bug or bubble-car". Gibbs was also impressed by its acceleration, remarking that it has "it has enough power to beat even the Aston Martin Rapide, all without petrol and with no emissions".[277] Reviewing for The Independent, Lee Williams called the Model S "a beautiful car that symbolizes humanity's march towards automation", but criticized its large size, describing the car as "too damn big".[278]Road & Track's Chris Perkins argued that Tesla managed to turn the "most important car of the century into a bad joke", describing the Model S Plaid as "perhaps one of the worst [cars in the world]". He called its yoke steering wheel "incredibly stupid", called its damping "irritating", and stated that "it doesn't have the chassis, steering, or brakes to deal with the horsepower".[7] The newspaper U.S. News & World Report thought that its "basic interior feels out of step with its price, and newer rivals offer more room, style and, in some cases, range".[279] According to Lee Hutchinson of the news website Ars Technica, the Model S's "almond-shaped headlights and prominent nosecone conjure images of Maserati, while the rear half has a distinct Aston Martin DBS flavor, [and] the taillights and rear evoke the Jaguar XF".[1] While being in two completely different classes, the Model S has been frequently compared to the first generation of the Nissan Leaf, a hatchback.[280][281]
Ars Technica's Lee Hutchinson called the vehicle's acceleration "instant, ludicrous, [and] neck-snapping", believing that it was "more appropriate for a roller-coaster than a car". He described its styling as "graceful, with a precisely engineered exterior".[1] In his review for Carwow, Mat Watson described the Model S Plaid as "astonishingly quick" and "extremely quiet", but he criticized its high price and noted that competing models offer greater comfort. Watson ultimately rated it eight out of ten.[282] Keith Adams of the magazine Car described the Model S as "the king of the hill". He called the thrust "stomach-churning from rest", believing that the driver would "crave to relive the experience—again and again".[283]Jalopnik's Lawrence Hodge criticized the yoke steering wheel, describing it as "stupid" and suggesting that its introduction was more of a downgrade than an upgrade.[284]
Awards
The Model S is the recipient of numerous awards, as listed in the table below:[note 10]
The tZero is a hand-built electric sports car designed and built in very limited numbers by the U.S. pioneering company AC Propulsion in the mid 1990's. It was the inspiration and direct predecessor of the Tesla line of electric cars. The only part of the tZero that was not proprietary was the body that was based on the Piontek Sportech sports car, yet many parts of the body and interior were extensively modified. It consists of a Kevlar & Carbon Fiber reinforced body built over a custom hand-built reinforced stainless steel fabricated to package batteries space frame with double wishbone independent suspension and rack and pinion steering. AC Propulsion utilized their AC-150 drivetrain, a single-speed electric system with an overall gear ratio of 9:1.
Tesla, Inc. is an American multinational automotive and clean energy company. Headquartered in Austin, Texas, it designs, manufactures and sells battery electric vehicles (BEVs), stationary battery energy storage devices from home to grid-scale, solar panels and solar shingles, and related products and services.
The Tesla Roadster is a battery electric sports car, based on the Lotus Elise chassis, produced by Tesla Motors from 2008 to 2012. The Roadster was the first highway legal, serial production, all-electric car to use lithium-ion battery cells, and the first production all-electric car to travel more than 244 miles (393 km) per charge. It is also the first production car to be launched into deep space, carried by a Falcon Heavy rocket in a test flight on February 6, 2018.
The Fisker Karma is a luxury plug-in range-extended electric sports sedan produced by Fisker Automotive between 2011 and 2012. The cars were manufactured at Valmet Automotive in Finland.
The Tesla Model X is a battery electric mid-size luxury crossover SUV built by Tesla, Inc. since 2015. Developed from the full-sized sedan platform of the Tesla Model S, the vehicle notably uses falcon wing doors for passenger access.
The Tesla Model 3 is a battery electric powered mid-size sedan with a fastback body style built by Tesla, Inc., introduced in 2017. The vehicle is marketed as being more affordable to more people than previous models made by Tesla. The Model 3 was the world's top-selling plug-in electric car for three years, from 2018 to 2020, before the Tesla Model Y, a crossover SUV based on the Model 3 chassis, took the top spot. In June 2021, the Model 3 became the first electric car to pass global sales of 1 million.
The Tesla Model Y is a battery electric compact crossover SUV produced by Tesla, Inc. since 2020. The vehicle was presented in March 2019 as the company's fifth production model since its inception after the Roadster, Model S, Model X and Model 3.
The Porsche Taycan is a battery electric luxury sports sedan and shooting brake car produced by German automobile manufacturer Porsche. The concept version of the Taycan named the Porsche Mission E, debuted at the 2015 Frankfurt Motor Show. Four years later, the production Taycan was revealed at the 2019 Frankfurt Motor Show. As Porsche's first series production electric car, it is sold in several variants at different performance levels, and may spawn further derivatives in future models. It is built on the J1 electric car platform shared with the similarly shaped Audi e-tron GT.
Tesla Autopilot is an advanced driver-assistance system (ADAS) developed by Tesla that amounts to partial vehicle automation. Tesla provides "Base Autopilot" on all vehicles, which includes lane centering and traffic-aware cruise control. Owners may purchase or subscribe to Full Self-Driving (FSD) which adds semi-autonomous navigation that responds to traffic lights and stop signs, lane change assistance, self-parking, and the ability to summon the car from a garage or parking spot.
The Tesla Semi is a battery electric semi-trailer truck built by Tesla, Inc. since 2022. The truck is powered by three motors, and according to Tesla has approximately three times the power of a typical diesel semi truck, a range of 500 miles (800 km), and can operate at an energy use of less than two kilowatt-hours per mile (1.2 kW⋅h/km).
Tesla, Inc., an electric vehicle manufacturer and clean energy company founded in San Carlos, California in 2003 by American entrepreneurs Martin Eberhard and Marc Tarpenning. The company is named after Serbian-American inventor Nikola Tesla. Tesla is the world's leading electric vehicle manufacturer, and, as of the end of 2021, Tesla's cumulative global vehicle sales totaled 2.3 million units.
Karma Automotive is a privately owned American luxury electric vehicle company founded in 2014 and now owned by Chinese conglomerate Wanxiang Group. Headquartered in Irvine, California with an assembly plant located in Moreno Valley, Karma sells vehicles via its dealer network of locations in North America, Europe, South America, and the Middle East.
Lucid Group, Inc. is an American automotive and technology company that manufactures electric vehicles and supplies advanced electric vehicle powertrain systems. The company is headquartered in Newark, California. In September 2021, the company began producing the Lucid Air sedan at its factory in Casa Grande, Arizona. The company expects to begin production of its second model, the Lucid Gravity SUV, in late 2024. Lucid also supplies and develops powertrain technology to other automakers, including Aston Martin.
The Lucid Air is a battery electric 4-door luxury sedan made by Lucid Motors. The car was announced in December 2016 and sold starting in 2021.
The Tesla Roadster is an upcoming battery electric four-seater sports car to be built by Tesla, Inc. The company said it will be capable of accelerating from 0 to 60 mph in 1.9 seconds, which would be quicker than any street legal production car to date at its announcement in November 2017. The Roadster is the successor to Tesla's first production car, the 2008 Roadster.
The Tesla Cybertruck is a battery electric pickup truck built by Tesla, Inc. since 2023. Introduced as a concept vehicle in November 2019, it has a controversial body design reminiscent of low-polygon modelling, consisting of flat stainless steel sheet panels.
The Ford Mustang Mach-E (CX727) is a battery electric compact crossover SUV produced by Ford. Introduced on November 17, 2019, it went on sale in December 2020 as a 2021 model. The Mach-E is part of the Mustang series, with its name inspired by the Mach 1 variant of the first-generation Mustang. The car won the 2021 North American SUV of the Year Award.
Tesla, Inc. has been criticized for its cars, workplace culture, business practices, and occupational safety. Many of the criticisms are also directed toward Elon Musk, the company's CEO and Product Architect. Critics have also accused Tesla of deceptive marketing, unfulfilled promises, and fraud. The company is currently facing criminal and civil investigations into its self-driving claims. Critics have highlighted Tesla's downplaying of issues, and Tesla's alleged retaliation against several whistleblowers.
↑ The new motor technology increased the range by ten percent. In an induction motor, alternating current in the stator (the stationary part) creates a rotating magnetic field. This field induces currents in the rotor (the spinning part), producing a magnetic field that causes the rotor to spin in the same direction. In a synchronous reluctance motor, the stator has electromagnets, but the rotor has no windings or magnets. Instead, it is made of magnetic and non-magnetic materials arranged to align with the stator's magnetic field, driving the rotor's movement.[70]
Zohuri, Bahman; Rahmani, Farhang Mossavar; Behgounia, Farahnaz (2022). Knowledge is Power in Four Dimensions: Models to Forecast Future Paradigm. Elsevier. ISBN978-0-3239-5113-5.
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