Adaptive cruise control

Last updated

Schematic of Intelligent Cruise Control. The red car automatically maintains a safe distance from the blue car. Schema ICC.svg
Schematic of Intelligent Cruise Control. The red car automatically maintains a safe distance from the blue car.
External videos
Nuvola apps kaboodle.svg Adaptive cruise control by the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (example video)

Adaptive cruise control (ACC) is a type of advanced driver-assistance system for road vehicles that automatically adjusts the vehicle speed to maintain a safe distance from vehicles ahead. [1] Using sensors such as radar, lidar, or cameras, ACC can slow the vehicle when traffic ahead reduces speed and accelerate back to a preset speed when the road is clear. [2]

Contents

First introduced in te 1990s, [3] ACC has evolved from early laser based systems to more advanced radar and camera-based technologies capable of operating at a full speed ranges, including stop-and-go traffic. [2]

ACC is considered a key component of partially automated driving. Under SAE International's classification, most ACC systems are categorized as Level 1 automation, [4] as they control longitudinal vehicle motion but require continuous driver supervision and do not provide full vehicle autonomy. [5] When combined with steering assistance features such as lane centering, the system may qualify as Level 2 automation. [4]

Consumer use

Adaptive cruise control (ACC) is an advanced driver-assistance feature that supplements, but does not replace, the role of the driver. The system automates longitudinal vehicle control by adjusting throttle and, in many systems, applying braking to maintain a preset following distance, but it requires continuous driver supervision and does not replace the driver's responsibility for vehicle operation. [6] [7]

During operation, the driver selects a desired cruising speed and following distance. If the vehicle approaches slower-moving traffic, ACC automaticall reduces engine power and may apply braking to maintain the selected gap. When traffic conditions permit, the vehicle accelerates back to the preset speed. [6] [7] Some full speed range systems are capable of functioning in stop-and-go traffic, though driver attention remains required. [1] [7]

Pricing

Adaptive cruise control is commonly offered as standard equipment on higher trim levels, or as part of optional safety or technology packages. The inclusion of ACC may increase a vehicle's price by several hundred to several thousand U.S. dollars depending on the manufacturer and the features bundled with the system. [7]

Because ACC is frequently packaged with other ADAS technologies, such as lane-keeping assist or automatic emergency braking, buyers may pay for a broader safety suite rather than the feature as a standalone option. [7]

Types

The Jeep adaptive cruise control radar sensor located in the center of the lower grill 2012 Jeep GC Adaptive Cruise Control sensor.jpg
The Jeep adaptive cruise control radar sensor located in the center of the lower grill
Autonomous cruise control on VW Golf Adaptive Cruise Control.jpg
Autonomous cruise control on VW Golf
Intelligent Cruise Control (ICC) SteeringSwitch (ProPilot) Nissan Serena SERENA e-POWER SteeringSwitch ProPilot.png
Intelligent Cruise Control (ICC)
SteeringSwitch (ProPilot)
Nissan Serena

There exist three major types of ACC: laser-based, radar-based, and camera-based. [2]

Radar-based systems

Radar-based sensors work by emitting a radio wave at a frequency of either 24GHz or 77GHz. As these signals are emitted, the car computes how long it takes for the signal to return, thus finding out how far away a vehicle may be in front of it. Due to the widely distributed beam, radar ACC systems allow for a much wider field of view while still being able to provide accurate measurements of 160+ meters (Roughly 525 feet). [2] These radar systems can be hidden behind plastic fascias; however, the fascias may look different from a vehicle without the feature. For example, Mercedes-Benz packages the radar behind the upper grille in the center and behind a solid plastic panel that has painted slats to simulate the look of the rest of the grille.

Single radar systems are the most common. Systems involving multiple sensors use either two similar hardware sensors like the 2010 Audi A8 [8] or the 2010 Volkswagen Touareg, [9] or one central long range radar coupled with two short radar sensors placed on the corners of the vehicle like the BMW 5 and 6 series. [10]

Lidar-based systems

Laser-based systems work using LIDAR (Light detection and ranging), allowing laser-based ACC to provide the largest detection distance as well as the best accuracy of all ACC systems. [2] However, laser-based systems do not detect and track vehicles as reliably in adverse weather conditions due to the fact that fog, or water particles in the air may absorb and or redirect the light emitted from the laser, through absorption, scattering, and reflection. [11] Laser based ACC systems also have a more difficult time tracking dirty (and therefore non-reflective) vehicles. Laser-based sensors must be exposed, the sensor (a fairly large black box) is typically found in the lower grille, offset to one side.

Camera-based systems

Camera-based adaptive cruise control (ACC) uses one or more forward-facing cameras to detect and track vehicles ahead using computer vision. Instead of directly measuring range with reflected radio waves (radar) or laser pulses (lidar), camera-based systems infer distance and closing speed from image cues such as object size and motion across frames, and when stereo cameras are used, by estimating depth from parallax between two views. [12] [13]

Some camera-based ACC implementations use stereo (binocular) camera arrangements mounted near the windshield, wnabling depth perception without radar. Subaru's EyeSight is a well-known example of this approach; Subaru describes EyeSight as using camera-based sensing to support adaptive cruise control and related driver-assistance functions. [13] [14]

Other systems use multiple cameras with machine-learning-based perception. Tesla’s “Tesla Vision” is a camera-dominant approach in which vehicles rely primarily on onboard cameras and neural-network processing for adaptive cruise control and other driver-assistance features. [15]

Camera-based ACC performance can be sensitive to visibility conditions. Low light, glare, heavy precipitation, or obstruction of the camera lens can reduce detection reliability compared with radar-based sensing. For this reason, many manufacturers combine cameras with radar in multi-sensor configurations. [12] [16]

Multi-sensor and integrated systems

Systems with multiple sensors can practice sensor fusion to integrate the data to improve safety and/or driving experience. GPS data can inform the system of geographic features such as a freeway offramp. A camera system could notice driver behavior such as brake lights and/or a turn signal. This could allow the following car to interpret a turn signal by an exit as not requiring the following car to slow down, as the leading car will exit. [17] Multi-sensor systems could also take note of traffic signs/signals and not, e.g., violate a red light while following a vehicle that crossed before the signal changed.

Predictive systems

Predictive systems modify vehicle speed based on predictions of other vehicles' behavior. Such systems can make earlier, more moderate adjustments to the predicted behavior, improving safety and passenger comfort. One example is to predict the likelihood of a vehicle in a neighboring lane moving in front of the controlled vehicle. One system predicts a lane change up to five seconds before it occurs. [18]

Regulations and norms

Adaptive cruise control is regulated by European norm ISO 15622 Intelligent transport systems—Adaptive cruise control systems—Performance requirements and test procedures. [19]

According to this standard, an ACC is partial automation of longitudinal vehicle control to reduce the workload of the driver on roads where non-motorized vehicles and pedestrians are prohibited. It does not deal with stationary objects. [20]

According to this standard, ACC includes two classes of systems: the FSRA (full speed range) and the LSRA (limited speed range). [20]

History

"Distronic Plus" display on Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W221) Mercedes-Benz Distronic Plus screen.jpg
"Distronic Plus" display on Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W221)
ACC radar antenna Radar Antenne fur Kfz-Anwendungen.jpg
ACC radar antenna

Vehicle models supporting adaptive cruise control

The three main categories of ACC are:

MakeFull speed range ACCPartial cruise control
ModelsNotesModelsNotes
AftermarketAny Vehicle 1990+Uses OpenCV with no braking.

Motor Authority Review [54]

Acura RLX (2014+), MDX (2014+), TLX (2015+)2005 RL, MDX, ZDX, 2016 MDX is 0 mph type, 2016 ILX, [55] RDX [56]
Alfa Romeo Giulia (2016+)Adaptive Cruise Control with Stop & Go [57]
Audi A8, A7 (2010+), A6 (2011+); A7 (2013+), Q7 (2007+), A3 Prestige (2013+), Q5 (2013+), A5 (2016+), A4 (2016+)Adaptive Cruise Control with Stop & Go A3, A4(2008–16, questionable for 2005-07), A5(2007–15), Q5 (2008–12), A6 (questionable for 2004-10), A7, A8 (2002–09) (also uses data from navigation and front camera sensors), [58] Q7
BentleyContinental GT (2009+)Follow-to-Stop option
BMW3 and 5-series (2007+), 7-series (2009+), X5 (2011+) [59] excl Diesel, i3 (2014+), X3 (2014+)Active Cruise Control with Stop & Go (BMW Option Code S5DFA)Series 7, 5, 6, 3 (2000+), Mini (2014+)Stop & Go/Lane Assist controls steering for up to 30 seconds of hands-off driving. Highway driving only. Available on 3, 5, 6 and 7 models. (BMW Option Code S541A)

Active Cruise Control [60]

Buick Enclave (2018+), Envision (2017+), Regal/Regal Sportback/ Regal TourX (2016+), [61] Lacrosse (2017+) Lacrosse (2014–2016), [62] Regal (2014–2015)
CadillacXTS, ATS, SRX (2013+), CTS (2014+), ELR, Escalade/Escalade ESV (2015+ Premium trim)Also includes full power automatic braking under 20 mph (32 km/h) (GM Option 'RPO' Code KSG)2004 XLR, 2005 STS, 2006 DTS (shuts off below 25 mph (40 km/h))
Chevrolet Bolt & Bolt EUV (2022+), Impala (2014+), Malibu (2016+), Volt (2017+), Traverse (2018+ High Country trim only), Tahoe/Suburban (2017+ Premier trim), Blazer (2019+), Equinox (2019+), [63] Silverado (2020+ LT, LTZ and High Country trims) [64] Adaptive Cruise Control - Advanced with Traffic Jam Assist (GM Option 'RPO' Code KSG) Tahoe/Suburban (2015-2016 LTZ trim),Adaptive Cruise Control - Camera, Disables when the vehicle slows to under 10 mph (16 km/h) (GM Option 'RPO' Code K59)
Chrysler200c (2015+), 300 (2015+ in S, C, or C Platinum trims), Pacifica & Pacifica Hybrid (2017+ in Touring L Plus or Limited trims)Active Cruise Control with Stop & Go. [65] 2007–2014 300C Laser, for a limited time, now uses a Bosch radar-based system
CitroenC4 Picasso & Grand C4 Picasso (2013–22), C5 AircrossAdaptive Cruise Control with Stop & GoC4 (2004–10), C4 Picasso (2006–13), Berlingo (2018+), C4 Cactus
DodgeCharger (2015+), Challenger (2015+)2011 Charger, 2011 Durango Radar, by Bosch
FordEverest (2015+, Trend and Titanium models only), [66] Fusion (2017+), F-150 (2018+), Expedition (2018+), Mustang (2015+, Premium models only), Focus (2018+)Adaptive cruise control with stop-and-go (optional)2015-2017 F150 [67] 2011+Explorer, 2017+ Fiesta, 2013+ Ford FLEX, 2006 Mondeo, 2013 Kuga, 2013-2016 Fusion, S-Max, Galaxy, 2010+ Taurus, 2011+ Edge, 2017+ Super Duty, 2019+ RangerDisables and does not work or brake under 20 mph (32 km/h); - Radar [68] Adaptive Cruise Control and Collision Warning with Brake Support
GMC Acadia (2017+ Denali), Yukon/Yukon XL (2017+ Denali), Terrain (2019+), [69] Sierra (2020+ SLT, AT4 and Denali)Adaptive Cruise Control - Advanced with Traffic Jam Assist (GM Option 'RPO' Code KSG) Yukon/Yukon XL (2015-2016 Denali)Adaptive Cruise Control - Camera, Disables when the vehicle slows to under 10 mph (16 km/h) (GM Option 'RPO' Code K59)
HondaAccord (2018+), [70] CRV (2017+), Available with Honda Sensing package (2016+)Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC) with Low-Speed Follow2003 Inspire, 2005 Legend, 2013 Accord (USA), 2007 CR-V series III, 2015 Honda CRV, 2016+ Honda Pilot, [71] 2018 Honda Odyssey Adaptive Cruise Control and Collision Mitigating Braking System with Honda Sensing [72]
HyundaiAzera (2016+), Equus (2012+), Genesis (2015+), Sonata (2015+), Santa Fe (2017+), Santa Fe Sport (2017+), Ioniq (2017+), Palisade (2019+), Ioniq 5 (2022+) Genesis (2010+), Elantra (2017+)
InfinitiEX (2010+)*, Q50 (2014+)Older laser based system*2006 EX, M, Q45, QX56, G35, FX35/45/50, G37 Shuts off below 3 mph, EX: in North America as an option, shuts off below 40 km/h (25 mph)
Jaguar XK8 / XKR (X100) (1999–2006), XK / XKR (X150) (2006–2014), S-Type, XJ, XF
JeepCherokee (2014+, Limited and TrailHawk Models), Grand Cherokee (2012+), Wrangler (2018+) [73] Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC) - Stop/Start again option on 2017 models but not prior models.2011–2013 Grand Cherokee (Option on Limited & Overland, standard on Summit)Radar, by Bosch

disengages below 15 mph (24 km/h) [74]

KiaCadenza (2014+), Sedona (2015+), K900 (2015+), Optima (2016+), Sorento (2016+), Niro (2017+), Telluride (2019+), EV6 (2022+)Advanced Smart Cruise Control (ASCC)
Land Rover Range Rover (L405) (2013+) Range Rover Sport (L320) (2005–2013)

Range Rover (L322) (2010–2012)

Above 20 mph (32 km/h).

Later models (~2010-) can add full speed range by (unofficial) software upgrade. [75]

Discovery 3 and 4 can retrofit L320 system with custom mounting hardware [76]

Lincoln Continental (2017+), [77] MKZ (2017+) [78] Adaptive cruise control with stop-and-go. MKS (2009+), MKT (2010+), MKX (2011+), MKZ (2013+), MKC (2015+)Radar [68] Adaptive Cruise Control and Collision Warning with Brake Support
LexusLS 460 (2006+), GS hybrid (2013+), NX (2015+), NX hybrid (2015+), GS non-hybrid (2016+), RX (2016+), RX hybrid (2016+), UX (2019+), [79] ES (2019+) [80] Dynamic Radar Cruise Control
LS 460 full ACC not available in US until 2013
2000 LS430/460 (laser and radar), RX (laser and radar), GS, IS, ES 350, and LX 570 (shuts off below 25 mph (40 km/h))
Mazda CX-5 (2017+), CX-9 (2017+), [81] Mazda3 (2020+), Mazda CX-30 (2020+), Mazda6 (2021+) [82] Mazda Radar Cruise Control with Stop and Go Mazda6 (2014+), Mazda3, CX-5 (2016+)Radar Cruise Control and Forward Obstruction Warning [83]
MitsubishiOutlander (2014+)
Mercedes-BenzS (2006+), B, E, CLS, CL (2009+); A, CLA, M, G, GL (2013+)Distronic Plus1998 S, E, CLS, SL, CL, M, GL, CLK, 2012 C Distronic
Nissan Murano (2015+), Maxima (2016+), Altima (2016+), Sentra (2017+), Note (2017+), Leaf (2018+), Titan (2020+)Stops vehicle but resets after 3 seconds, requiring brake application to sit still and setting cruise speed again.1998 Cima, Primera T-Spec ModelsIntelligent Cruise Control (ICC)
Peugeot3008 and 5008 (2017+), 308 (2017+), 508 (2018+), 208 (2019+), 2008 (2019+)Adaptive Cruise Control with Stop & Go3008 and 5008 (2009–16), Partner (2018+)
PorschePanamera (2010+); Cayenne (2011+), Cayman (2013+), Boxster(2012+)Porsche Active Safe (PAS), PDK transmission only.
Ram 1500/2500/3500 (2019+)Adaptive Cruise with Stop
SEATLeón (2012+), Ateca [84]
SkodaOctavia (2013+), Fabia (2014+), Superb (2014+)
SubaruLegacy, Outback (2013+), Forester (2014+), Impreza (2015+), WRX (2016+), Crosstrek (2016+), Ascent (2019+)0 mph EyeSight [85] [14] Non-Radar Camera System
SuzukiSwift 2017+ Vitara (2015+), Sx4 Scross (2016+)Radar
Tesla Model S (late 2014+), Model X, Model 3, Model Y Traffic-Aware Cruise Control (TACC) [86] with Stop-and-Go
ToyotaPrius + Prius Prime (2016+), Camry (2018+), C-HR (2018+), Avalon (2017+), Land Cruiser (2018+), Rav 4 (2019+), Corolla (only Hatchback) (2019), Corolla Sedan (2017+) Toyota Safety Sense P (TSS-P), Corolla Sedan and Hatchback (2020+)Toyota Safety Sense (TSS-P) (on 2017+ Land Cruiser, Avalon and Avalon Hybrid, Prius, Corolla, Prius Prime, RAV4 and RAV4 Hybrid, Highlander and Highlander Hybrid), Toyota Safety Sense (TSS) 2.0 on 2019+ RAV4 and 2020+ Corolla has full speed range.1997 Celsior, 2004 Sienna (XLE Limited Edition), Avalon, Sequoia (Platinum Edition), Avensis, 2009 Corolla (Japan), [87] 2017+ Corolla, [88] 2010+ Prius, 2013+ Prius v, [89] 2014+ Highlander, [90] 2015+ Camry, [91] 2016+ RAV4 [92] Dynamic Laser Cruise Control (DLCC) on 2009+ Sienna XLE Limited, Avalon Limited and Sequoia Platinum shuts off below 25 mph (40 km/h) (US) [93]
Vauxhall / Opel Insignia, Zafira Tourer (on selected variants of SE, SRi, Elite, VXR), Astra
Volkswagen Phaeton (2010+), Passat B8 (2014+), Touareg (2011+), Golf Mk7 (2013+), Polo (2014+), Jetta (2016+ SEL Trim), Tiguan SEL (2018+), ATLAS SEL (2018+)Tiguan SEL and ATLAS SEL (2018+) ACC stop-and-go Passat, Phaeton all generations, Touareg
VolvoAll Volvo models 2015+

Starting in 2008 ACC was available as an option on V40, S60, [53] V60, XC60, V70, XC70 and S80

ACC also includes automatic braking. Newest models feature full power auto-brake with pedestrian and cyclist detection.

Mercedes Distronic Plus

Mercedes-Benz S 450 4MATIC Coupe. The forward-facing Distronic sensors are usually placed behind the Mercedes-Benz logo and front grille. Mercedes-Benz S 450 4MATIC, IAA 2017, Frankfurt (1Y7A2976).jpg
Mercedes-Benz S 450 4MATIC Coupe. The forward-facing Distronic sensors are usually placed behind the Mercedes-Benz logo and front grille.

In 1999, Mercedes introduced Distronic, the first radar-assisted adaptive system, on the Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W220) [25] [94] and the CL-Class. [27] Distronic adjusts the vehicle speed automatically to the car in front in order to always maintain a safe distance to other cars on the road.

In 2005, Mercedes refined the system ("Distronic Plus") making the Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W221) the first car to receive the upgraded system. Distronic Plus could now completely halt the car if necessary on most sedans. In an episode of Top Gear , Jeremy Clarkson demonstrated the effectiveness of the system by coming to a complete halt from motorway speeds to a round-about and getting out, without touching the pedals. [95]

In 2016, Mercedes introduced Active Brake Assist 4, the first emergency braking assistant with pedestrian recognition. [96]

One crash caused by Distronic Plus dates to 2005, when the German news magazine Stern was testing Mercedes' original Distronic system. During the test, the system did not always manage to brake in time. [97] Ulrich Mellinghoff, then Head of Safety, NVH, and Testing at the Mercedes-Benz Technology Centre, stated that some tests failed because the vehicle was tested in a metallic hall, which caused problems with radar. Later iterations received an upgraded radar and other sensors, which are not disrupted by a metallic environment. [97] [98] In 2008, Mercedes conducted a study comparing the crash rates of Distronic Plus vehicles and vehicles without it, and concluded that those equipped with Distronic Plus have an around 20% lower crash rate. [99]

Aftermarket

Comma.ai offers an aftermarket alternative to factory-built ACC systems through its openpilot software paired with Comma hardware. When installed in a compatible vehicle, OpenPilot replaces or enhances existing ADAS features. This effectively brings Level-2 capabilities to cars that originally didn't have them. [100] [101]

See also

References

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