The International Campaign to Save the Monuments of Nubia was the effort to relocate 22 monuments in Lower Nubia, in Southern Egypt and northern Sudan, between 1960 and 1980. This was done in order to make way for the building of the Aswan Dam, at the Nile's first cataract (shallow rapids), a project launched following the 1952 Egyptian revolution.[1] This project was undertaken under UNESCO leadership and a coalition of fifty countries. This process led to the creation of the World Heritage Convention in 1972, and thus the system of UNESCO World Heritage Sites.[2]
The building of the dam was to result in the creation of Lake Nasser, which would submerge the banks of the Nile along its entire 479km (298mi) length south of the dam – flooding the entire area of historical Lower Nubia. This region was home to 22 critical historical sites, including but not limited to the Abu Simbel temples; as well as the temples at Philae, Kalabsha and Amada.
It was described in the UNESCO Courier as "the greatest archaeological rescue operation of all time".[3]
In April 1979, the monuments were inscribed on the World Heritage List as the Nubian Monuments from Abu Simbel to Philae, as one of the second group of properties added to the list (the first 12 had been added in 1978).[4]
History
The UNESCO division of the UN logo
In 1954, UNESCO founded the CEDAE (Centre d'Étude et de Documentation sur l'Ancienne Égypte, in English the Documentation and Study Centre for the History of the Art and Civilization of Ancient Egypt) in Cairo under the direction of Christiane Desroches Noblecourt, who was a French Egyptologist at the Louvre. The Study Centre worked on documenting over 400 private tombs, primarily through photography and photogrammetry.[1]
Desroches-Noblecourt begins lobbying to save the monuments
Aware that planning was underway for the Aswan high dam and the potential threat that it posed to Nubian monuments CEDAE, with the permission of UNESCO decided to concentrate its efforts on Nubia. Desroches-Noblecourt became determined to do her best to save the monuments and in particular Abu Simbel that were threatened by any lake created by the new dam.[5]
To enlist support she arranged for Luther Evans, the director general of UNESCO, while on a visit to Egypt to visit Abu Simbel. "Despite at the end of his visit proclaiming "These works are imperishable and must be protected. We must take action to do so", UNESCO took no action.[5] At an international conference of museum directors and antiquities experts in Paris in May 1955 organised by the International Council of Museums Desroches-Noblecourt argued that every effort needed to be made to save the monuments of Nubia. Though sympathetic to her appeal, attendees had doubts that it was even technologically possible to do anything with some of the view that there were higher priorities. A short time later UNESCO's chief lawyer, the Egyptian Hanna Sabba suggested she try and enlist the support of René Maheu who was currently the undersecretary of UNESCO.[5] Maheu promised his support. By September 1955, field expeditions under Dr. Ahmed Badawi were being undertaken in Nubia with UNESCO permission.
In the aftermath of the Suez Crisis Desroches-Noblecourt along with all other British and French citizens were confined to their homes or hotels before being expelled from the country in early November 1956. Then at the end of December in that year UNESCO was informed by the Egyptian government that while whey would no longer welcome British and French experts they would make an exception for her.[6] With the approval of the French government she returned to her position at CEDAE. To make up for the restriction on hiring British and French experts she used her international contacts to recruit specialists from other countries as CEDAE raced to document the monuments of Nuba. When she became aware of the Egyptian governments plan to close the French Institute of Oriental Archaeology (IFAO) she was able with the support of the Canadian ambassador and a lawyer hired by the French government to broker an arrangement that allowed the IFAO to continue.[6] Despite numerous appeals to Egyptian and UNESCO to save the Nubian monuments she was making no progress.
Okasha comes on board
Among those who had rejected Desroches-Noblecourt's appeals was Tharwat Okasha who was head of the newly created Egyptian Ministry of Culture which had been established in 1958 and had responsibility for all of the country's antiquities. However, in late 1958 he had a sudden epiphany following a visit by Raymond A. Hare the United States ambassador to Egypt and James Rorimer, the director of the Metropolitan Museum in New York. During their meeting Rorimer made the comment that since Egypt wasn't prepared to protect its own monuments then it would be better to sell them off to countered who could.[7] Several years later he described being, "haunted by the threat of appalling loss. I deemed it the duty of the Ministry of Culture to plan the salvation of the threatened monuments. Preserving our treasures for posterity became the imperative, and I determined then that the impossible would be made possible."[7] At a discussion the next day with Desroches-Noblecourt where he recounted the insult he had felt at Rorimer's remarks she proposed that Egypt join forces with UNESCO in a campaign to save them.[7] By now Rene Maheu was deputy director general at UNESCO and in a position to help. In January 1959 Maheu met with Okasha in Cairo. Immediately upon his return to Paris, Maheu had Vittorino Veronese, the director general of UNESCO call Okasha on the telephone to express his full support for a campaign to save the monuments.
At the time the Egyptian government was dedicated to improving the country's and had placed little importance in preserving its heritage, though it had taken pride in pharaonic Egypt's accomplishments. It took until early April 1959 before Okasha was able to convince Nasser to agree to asking for international assistance. Nasser also agreed to Okasha's proposal that Egypt would cover a third of the cost with the project overseen by UNESCO and the Ministry of Culture. In return for their financial assistance Egypt would offer inducements to financial contributors. This took the form of gifts of a number of antiquities including four Nubian temples while foreign archaeologists would not only be granted not only access to threaten Nuban sites, but countries would be allowed to keep half of what was uncovered.[7][8] This was a dramatic reversal of the country's 30 year reluctance to allowing foreign archaeologists to receive a share of any finds. The day after receiving Nasser's approval Desroches-Noblecourt on Okasha's request drafted a letter in French which Nasser signed on 6 April 1959 and she hand delivered in April to UNESCO, which formally requested UNESCOs assistance.[7] In June 1959 UNESCO's executive authorised Veronese to produce a plan on how to undertake the saving of the monuments.
Wadi es-Sebua, or Valley of the Lions
To provide information for the plan teams of experts from CEDAE were dispatched across Nubia to conduct ground inspections of the threatened monuments. Meanwhile, Desroches-Noblecourt engaged engineers from France's National Geographical Institute to conduct an aerial survey of Nubia using aircraft from the Egyptian air force. In October 1959 an international multi-disciplinary committee of experts from UNESCO lead by John Brew the head of Harvard's Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology spent 10 days being escorted by Desroches-Noblecourt around Nubia.[7] The committee's report which was countersigned by the Egyptian government recommended that efforts be made to save 24 monuments stating that their loss would be "an irreparable loss for the world." The report was accepted in November 1959 by UNESCO's executive council and approved by its general conference in January 1960.[7]
On 9 January 1960 formal construction began on the Aswan High Dam.
UNESCO issues a campaign to save the monuments
In early 1960 Veronese officially submitted a proposal to the executive board of UNESCO to attempt to save the monuments, pointing out various concerns regarding the need to preserve Nubian cultural heritage sites in Egypt and Sudan while promoting the welfare of Egypt in relation to the proposed Aswan Dam. In the proposal he stated: "It is not easy to choose between a heritage of the past and the present well-being of a people, living in need in the shadow of one of history's most splendid legacies, it is not easy to choose between temples and crops."[9] The executive board accepted Veronese's proposal and on 8 March 1960 Veronese formally announced UNESCO's campaign to save the Nubian monuments.[10][11] To build support of the campaign Okasha lobbied foreign ambassadors and heads of state while Maheu with the assistance of Prince Sadruddin Aga Khan who was head of UNESCO's international action committee lobbied the government officials of UN member nations. The United Kingdom refused any assistance as it was still smarting from the humiliation it had received during the Suez Crisis.[11] It was later to reverse this decision.[12]
Jacqueline Kennedy gives her support
While the United States supported in principle the efforts to save the monuments, the anti-communist orientated Eisenhower administration was opposed to providing any financial aid to Egypt due to that country's acceptance of Soviet assistance in the construction of the Aswan High Dam However that position began to change with the coming to power of the Kennedy administration, when Jacqueline Kennedy a few weeks after becoming First Lady wrote a long memo to her husband arguing that the Nubian monuments should be saved and that the United States should contribute. As a result of this lobbying together with that from Prince Sadruddin Aga Khan, John Brew and John Wilson from the University of Chicago and others the administration who were looking to improve relations with non-aligned countries and counter Soviet influence agreed to try and provide financial support. On 4 April 1969 Kennedy asked Congress to contribute an initial $4 million to the Nubian and was able to overcome tepid support from many congressmen to have it narrowly authorised.[11]
To increase public support for the saving of the monuments the Egyptian government agreed to 24 small treasures from Tutankhamun's tomb going on a 15-city tour in late 1961 in the United States. On 3 November 1961 Jacqueline Kennedy opened the first exhibition, which was held in the Art Gallery of Art in Washington. Although it was a huge cultural success the tour to UNESCO's disappointment didn't result in any additional private or government donations. In late 1962 UNESCO issued a final appeal for funding saying it needed funding in place by the spring of 1963 if it was to proceed with what was now the only option for saving Abu Simbel, which was to move it by cutting it into pieces. Initially in response only 20 counties made additional contributions.[11]
Aware that the Kennedys had an interest in the Nubian monuments Lucius Battle who had been appointed the assistant secretary of state for educational and cultural affairs in June 1962 identified that his country had acquired a large amount of Egyptian currency as a result of its Food for Peace program, which sold surplus American crops at a significant discount to worthy foreign governments. The program was required by the rules of its establishment under Public Law 480 to spend this money on economic development in Egypt. Battle proposed diverting $12 million of this money to fund the saving of Abu Simbel, for which approval from Congress was required.[11] Jacqueline Kennedy voiced her support in writing in January 1963 for Battle's proposal. In that same month she was supported by an appeal from Gianni Agnelli in directly to President Kennedy. Following Kennedy's assassination President Johnson's administration took up the issue as a way of honouring his predecessor with a number of prominent Americans (including Joshua Logan, S. Dillion Ripley) and organisations enlisted in lobby members of the Senate. Many senators were sceptical about the proposal including Allen Ellender, who however pointed that that there was an obscure section in Public Law 480 called the Cooley provision which did not required the approval of congress if the money.[11] This allowed for the local a currency to be given to private firms for business development and trade expansion if had been in the foreign country for more than three years. As he knew how important it had been to the Kennedy's, John J. Rooney who was the chairman of the House of Representatives appropriations sub-committee in charge of foreign aid was prepared to accept the repurposing of the money.[11]
Following the lead shown by the United States, over 50 countries in total made financial contributions.[12][13] The United States was the biggest donor, following by France, Italy, West Germany, Netherlands, Spain and Sweden.[12]
An honorary committee was first founded by King Gustav VI Adolf of Sweden to create international support for the campaign, with various world political leaders and UNESCO members as participants.[1] An official International Action Committee was established after under the UNESCO Director General in order to secure funding, service, and equipment from participating member states.[1] They decided that UNESCO would be in charge of planning the program of operations, coordination of labor, and the collection of funding. The intention was for them to serve as an intermediaries between donors and the nations of Egypt and Sudan.[1]
The statue of Ramses the Great at the Great Temple of Abu Simbel is reassembled after having been moved in 1967 to save it from flooding.
Egyptians contested the oversight of UNESCO, insisting that they could meet demands of donors without UNESCO involvement.[1] Despite this, UNESCO continued a significant amount of oversight throughout the duration of the campaign.[14] The level of fieldwork for the project had not been previous undertaken on equivalent scale or length of time, leaving many to praise the campaign as a feat of the field of archeology.[8] Desroches Noblecourt, who remained in charge of the CEDAE (Centre d'Étude et de Documentation sur l'Ancienne Égypte, in English the Documentation and Study Centre for the History of the Art and Civilization of Ancient Egypt) in Cairo, held a leading role within the archeological survey aspect of the campaign. She was tasked with the manner in which notes would be circulated during the project, suggesting that archaeological missions working in Nubia would be required to hand over copies publications and notes produced during the project to the centre, and abiding by the centre's publication techniques. Excavations from Egypt would be only required to send over copies of notes, without requiring copies of publications or oversight into said publications.[15] This is theorised to be related to the post-colonial desire to fortify Egyptian identity in a cultural history following the 1952 Egyptian revolution.[15]
The removal of temples was a project of greater difficulty with sites prioritised by importance, with the most expensive site excavated being Abu Simbel.[8]
Impact on the local population
The construction of Lake Nasser, as well as the excavations required in the Nubia campaign, involved the relocation of many Nubians native to the region. First in 1902 due to the construction of the Aswan Lower Dam, then in both 1912 and 1933 due to the rising water levels, and a fourth time after the creation of the Aswan High Dam. The forced relocation stripped many native Nubians of their ancestral homelands, with the compensation of unsuitable homes for living and agriculture. This forced many Nubians to immigrate to cities in Egypt and later Sudan.[1]
Timeline
A timeline of the key dates of the campaign is shown below:
Diplomacy
Relocation work
Aswan Dam
6 April 1959
Egypt appeals to UNESCO
24 October 1959
Sudan appeals to UNESCO
9 January 1960
Work on the Aswan High Dam officially begun
8 March 1960
Director-General of Unesco appeals to the international community
Summer 1960
Temples of Taffeh, Dabod and Kertassi dismantled by the Egyptian Antiquities Service
Nov. Dec. 1962
Unesco's General Conference creates Executive Committee for the International Campaign
1962–63
Temple of Kalabsha dismantled, transferred and re-erected
Spring 1964
Work begins on transfer of Abu Simbel temples
14 May 1964
Diversion of Nile to feed the turbines of the High Dam
September 1964
Lake Nasser begins to fill
22 September 1968
Completion of the Abu Simbel operation
6 November 1968
UNESCO launches International Campaign to save the Temples of Philae
1970
Construction of Aswan High Dam completed
1972
Work begins on Philae rescue operation; monuments to be transferred to nearby island of Agilkia
May 1974
Cofferdam around the island of Philae is completed and water is pumped out
April 1977
Foundations of the Philae monuments ready on the island of Agilkia and reconstruction work begins
The number of relocated monuments have been stated as 22[18] or 24[19] depending on how an individual site is defined. Only one archaeological site in Lower Nubia, Qasr Ibrim, remains in its original location and above water; previously a cliff-top settlement, it was transformed into an island.[20][21] The relocated sites can be grouped as follows:
Two temple groups moved nearby to nearly identical sites[19]
Eleven temples rebuilt and grouped in three oases overlooking Lake Nasser[19]
A scale model showing the original and current location of the temple (with respect to the water level) at the Nubian Museum, in Aswan
One scheme to save the Abu Simbel temples was based on an idea by William MacQuitty to build a clear freshwater dam around the temples, with the water inside kept at the same height as the Nile. There were to be underwater viewing chambers. In 1962 the idea was made into a proposal by architects Jane Drew and Maxwell Fry and civil engineer Ove Arup.[23] They considered that raising the temples ignored the effect of erosion of the sandstone by desert winds. However, the proposal, though acknowledged to be extremely elegant, was rejected.[24]
The salvage of the Abu Simbel temples began in 1964 by a multinational team of archeologists, engineers and skilled heavy equipment operators working together under the UNESCO banner; it cost some US$40million (equivalent to $632 million in 2024). Between 1964 and 1968, the entire site was carefully cut into large blocks (up to 30 tons, averaging 20 tons), dismantled, lifted and reassembled in a new location 65 metres higher and 200 metres back from the river, in one of the greatest challenges of archaeological engineering in history.[25] Some structures were even saved from under the waters of Lake Nasser.[26]
Amada
The Temple of Amada was a difficult case, because of its small, beautifully painted reliefs and was considered "one of the most distinctive and best preserved examples of the art of the 18th dynasty."[27] Desroches Noblecourt announced that France would save it.[28] However, more funds were needed for this project. To this end Desroches Noblecourt requested an interview with Charles de Gaulle, who had no idea of the commitment she had made in the name of her country. Reportedly on learning of it, he demanded, "Madame, how dare you say that France will save the temple, without authorization from my government?" Noblecourt replied, "General, how dare you make an appeal on the radio without authorization from Pétain?" De Gaulle agreed to honour Noblecourt's promise.[29]
As well as providing funding the French government provided significant technical support for the removal of the Temple of Amada. In 1964, the front portion of the temple was dismantled and transported on rails by the U.A.R. Antiquities Service. French archeologists then excavated the rest of the temple with the same railway system.[30]
In 1902, the Aswan Low Dam was completed on the Nile River by the British. This threatened to submerge many ancient landmarks, including the temple complex of Philae. The height of the dam was raised twice, from 1907 to 1912 and from 1929 to 1934, and the island of Philae was nearly always flooded. In fact, the only times that the complex was not underwater was when the dam's sluices were open from July to October. During this period it was proposed that the temples be relocated, piece by piece, to nearby islands, such as Bigeh or Elephantine. However, the temples' foundations and other architectural supporting structures were strengthened instead. Although the buildings were physically secure, the island's attractive vegetation and the colors of the temples' reliefs were washed away. Also, the bricks of the Philae temples soon became encrusted with silt and other debris carried by the Nile. With each inundation the situation worsened and in the 1960s the island was submerged up to a third of the buildings all year round.[31]
The work began in 1972, and in 1974 a large coffer dam was built,[32] constructed of two rows of steel plates between which a 1million cubic metres (35million cubic feet) of sand was tipped. Any water that seeped through was pumped away. Next the monuments were cleaned and measured, by using photogrammetry, a method that enables the exact reconstruction of the original size of the building blocks that were used by the ancients. Then every building was dismantled into about 40,000 units from 2 to 25 tons, and then transported to the nearby Island of Agilkia,[32] situated on higher ground some 500 metres (1,600ft) away. Foundations of the Philae monuments were ready on Agilkia by April 1977, and the transfer itself took place between 1977 and 1980.[33]
Individual Egyptian campaigns
The Temple of Dendur at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York
In addition to participating directly in the high-profile salvage operations of Abu Simbel and Philae, the Egyptian Antiquities Organization carried out the rescue of many smaller temples and monuments alone using their own financial and technical means.[34] As early as 1960 Egypt had started to rescue the temples of Taffeh (or Taffa), Debod and Qertassi, followed by Dakka and Maharraqa in 1961 and Dendur in 1962. The temples of Wadi es-Sebua and Beit el Wali and the rock tomb of Pennut at Aniba were moved in 1964 with the support of a US grant, whilst the subsequent re-erection was carried out with Egyptian resources. The Temple of Derr was rescued in 1965, and the temples of Gerf Husein, the chapel of Abu Oda (cut out of rock), the chapels of Qasr Ibrim (the rest of which has remained in situ), and many rock inscriptions and drawings, were also saved.[35]
Given the impending flooding of a wide area, Egypt and Sudan encouraged archaeological teams from across the world to carry out work as broadly as possible. Approximately 40 teams from across the world came to the region, to explore an area of approximately 500km in length.[38]
In addition to the relocation operations, many countries participated in excavation and preservation work. Some of this work took place at the CEDAE (Centre d'Étude et de Documentation sur l'Ancienne Égypte, in English the Documentation and Study Centre for the History of the Art and Civilization of Ancient Egypt), founded in Cairo in 1955 to coordinate the academic efforts:[39]
Egypt: Five campaigns by the University of Cairo at Aniba. One campaign by the University of Alexandria at Gebel Adda. Eight excavation campaigns by the Antiquities Service on various sites. Three campaigns by the Antiquities Service for cutting out rock drawings. Removal of eight monuments, work in two others, dismantling of the front part of the temple of Amada and financial contribution to the work for saving this temple and those of Wadi es-Sebua, Beit el-Wali and Aniba.[39]
Sudan: Since 1960, successive expeditions by the Antiquities Service, led by a UNESCO expert, for a general survey of Sudanese Nubia; excavations at some of the most important sites.[39]
Austria: Six archaeological campaigns in Egypt by the University of Vienna, in Egypt. Sending of an epigraphist to the CEDAE.[39]
Belgium: Sending of three experts to the CEDAE. Photogrammetric and epigraphic records of five monuments in the Sudan. Contribution to the cost of transferring the temple of Semna, Sudan.[39]
Denmark, Finland, Norway, Sweden: Four campaigns in Sudan by a joint mission. Finland alone: General surveying to the south of Gemai (near Wadi Halfa in Sudan).[39]
Netherlands: Two campaigns by the National Museum of Antiquities, Leiden, in Egypt: excavations of Abdallah Nirqi (early Christian village, church with painted decoration) and of Shokan (late Meroitic village).[41] Preliminary studies for saving the Island of Philae. Contribution to the cost of saving the temple of Kumna (Sudan).[39]
Spain: Four excavation campaigns and four campaigns to record and cut out rock inscriptions, in Egypt. Three excavation campaigns, in the Sudan.[39]
Switzerland: Two excavation campaigns in Egypt by the Schweizerisches Institut für Ägyptische Bauforschung und Altertumskunde in Cairo, one in co-operation with the University of Chicago, and one in co-operation with the Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale. Architectural records of a temple and leadership of the Antiquities service expedition to cut out rock inscriptions in 1964. Sending of an expert to the CEDAE by the Swiss National Science Foundation.[39]
United Kingdom: Four campaigns in Egypt and two in Sudan by the Egypt Exploration Society. Two campaigns by the Egypt Exploration Society and the University of London for the general survey of Nubia. Sending of two experts to the CEDAE. Sending of an epigraphist (in co-operation with Brown University). Contribution to the dismantling of the temple of Buhen.[39]
Soviet Union: One survey and excavation campaign, in Egypt. General surveying and recording of rock inscriptions, in Egypt.[39]
Yugoslavia: Sending of two architects to the CEDAE. Removal of Christian wall paintings (two experts), in Egypt. Removal of Christian wall paintings (two experts), in the Sudan.[39]
Financial contributions
The table below summarises the contributions towards the project by the global coalition of nations. The vast majority of these contributions funded the operations at Abu Simbel and Philae.[42]
In April 1979, the monuments were inscribed on the World Heritage List as the "Nubian Monuments from Abu Simbel to Philae". The inscribed area includes ten sites, five of which were relocated (all south of the city of Aswan), and five of which remain in their original position (near to the city of Aswan):[43]
Sites in their original location, north of the Aswan Low Dam[43] – although these five sites are grouped within the "Nubian Monuments from Abu Simbel to Philae", they are neither Nubian, nor between Abu Simbel and Philae
↑The World Heritage Convention: "The event that aroused particular international concern was the decision to build the Aswan High Dam in Egypt, which would have flooded the valley containing the Abu Simbel temples, a treasure of ancient Egyptian civilization. In 1959, after an appeal from the governments of Egypt and Sudan, UNESCO launched an international safeguarding campaign. Archaeological research in the areas to be flooded was accelerated. Above all, the Abu Simbel and Philae temples were dismantled, moved to dry ground and reassembled. The campaign cost about US$80 million, half of which was donated by some 50 countries, showing the importance of solidarity and nations' shared responsibility in conserving outstanding cultural sites. Its success led to other safeguarding campaigns, such as saving Venice and its Lagoon (Italy) and the Archaeological Ruins at Moenjodaro (Pakistan), and restoring the Borobodur Temple Compounds (Indonesia). Consequently, UNESCO initiated, with the help of the International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS), the preparation of a draft convention on the protection of cultural heritage."
↑Carruthers, William (2022). Flooded Pasts: UNESCO, Nubia, and the Recolonization of Archaeology. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. pp.237–273. ISBN9781501766442.
↑A.J. Clapham; P.A. Rowley-Conwy (2007). "New Discoveries at Qasr Ibrim". In R.T.J. Cappers (ed.). Fields of Change: Progress in African Archaeobotany. Groningen archaeological studies. David Brown Book Company. p.157. ISBN978-90-77922-30-9. Retrieved 5 November 2022. ... Qasr Ibrim is the only in situ site left in Lower Nubia since the flooding of the Nile valley
↑Ruffini, G.R. (2012). Medieval Nubia: A Social and Economic History. Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0-19-999620-9. Retrieved 5 November 2022. Qasr Ibrim is critically important in a number of ways. It is the only site in Lower Nubia that remained above water after the completion of the Aswan high dam.
↑The monuments of Nubia had been documented by early travellers and archaeologists, particularly in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Below are notable illustrations of the monuments published in the 1840s by David Roberts in his The Holy Land, Syria, Idumea, Arabia, Egypt, and Nubia
De Simone, Maria Costanza, ed. (2024). Remembering the Nubia Campaign. Recollections and Evaluations of the 'International Campaign to Save the Monuments of Nubia' After Fifty Years (Hardcover). Culture and History of the Ancient Near East. Vol.141. Leiden, Boston: Brill. ISBN978-90-04-71393-2.
Olson, Lynne (2023). Empress of the Nile: The Daredevil Archaeologist Who Saved Egypt's Ancient Temples from Destruction (Hardcover). New York: Random House. ISBN978-0525509479.
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