Kontor of Bruges

Last updated

The Kontor of Bruges was the Hanseatic kontor, one of the Hanseatic League's four major trading posts, in Bruges, County of Flanders. A kontor was a corporation (universitas) with a level of legal autonomy in a foreign non-Hanseatic city, the one of Bruges was formally organised in the 14th century. Bruges was a major Flemish port in the high and late Middle Ages. Flanders was a fiefdom of France until the Treaty of Senlis was signed in 1493, after that it belonged to the Holy Roman Empire.

Contents

The main trading good in Bruges was Flemish broadcloth, and other Flemish cloths, but Bruges was a cosmopolitan city with merchants from many parts of Europe and the Mediterranean so the selection of available goods in Bruges was large. In addition the presence of a kontor meant there was a Hanseatic staple in cloth and certain imported goods. The Kontor of Bruges stood out because the Hanseatic League's activity wasn't concentrated on a few buildings and Hansards instead were spread over the town. A special building was only acquired in the 15th century. As a result, Bruges had the most integrated kontor. Another way that the kontor stood out was that it was often moved away to other places when there were conflicts with the city or the county.

Bruges did not lie directly next to the North Sea but was reached by the Zwin, a tidal inlet that was formed by a storm in 1134. The ports Damme and Sluis lay on the inlet and gave access to Bruges. The Zwin began to silt progressively up in the 13th century. It harmed trade by the middle 15th century and in the 16th century the Hanseatic League decided to move the kontor to Antwerp, where the Oostershuis was built for it.

History

In 1134 a storm broke through the Flemish coast and created the tidal inlet the Zwin. It made Bruges the only Flemish cloth town with access to the North Sea. Bruges' first port was Damme and water transport could reach Bruges over the river Reie and other channels. [1] :132

Beginning of Hanseatic trade

Traders from cities that later made up the Hanseatic League seem to have come to Bruges from the first half of the 13th century. The traders didn't acquire any real estate to establish themselves, but rented lodging and storage from locals. The canteen of the Carmelite monastery, where the Hansards went to church, could be rented for meetings if it was necessary. [2] :92 In 1252 countess Margaret of Flanders and her son Guy of Flanders granted two sets of privileges to Holy Roman traders, one to a group based around Hamburg and one to a Rhenish-Westphalian grouping including Cologne. The latter requested an emporium-enclave near Damme, but this was fatefully denied: Bruges wanted to secure a key position over nearby towns and villages and couldn't use new potential rivals. [3] :182–183

Conflict arose in the late 1270s about irregularities in weighing and the increase of certain duties. Not only the Hanse objected, but also Spanish and south French merchants. The League moved the kontor temporarily to Aardenburg in 1280, supported by the count of Flanders. It was however an unfavourable location. Lübeck seems to have played a prime role in the negotiations that began in 1281. The kontor returned in 1282. [4] :58 [5] :19–21

A progressive process of silting up the Zwin began in the 13th century. [1] :132

It was impossible for larger ships to call at Damme anymore by the 14th century, the port for these ships moved to Sluis. Bruges made large investments in an ultimately vain effort to keep the trade route open. [1] :132

New complaints arose about weighing and monetary issues in 1307 or 1308. Again Aardenburg and the count of Flanders facilitated a temporary relocation of the kontor. Brunswick, Goslar and Magdeburg led negotiations. The kontor returned in 1310, the Hansards acquired the right to their own meetings and to issue and enforce internal ordinances. [5] :20–21

Reform of the kontor and height of the kontor's influence

The Kontor of Bruges was institutionally reformed in 1347, in a way that would be very influential. It pioneered a division of Hansards in three parts, a reform that would be adopted by Hanseatic League itself and by the Steelyard in London. [2] :101

Again concerns about weighing, arbitrary tax increases, compensations and privileges moved the League in 1350 to relocate the kontor to Aardenburg, against the backdrop of the Hundred Years' War, but this wasn't carried out. A diet convened in 1356 to discuss the matter but negotiations led nowhere. The Hanseatic diet called a blockade against Flanders in January 1358. [6] :28-29 Duke Albert I of Bavaria, Hainaut, Holland and Zeeland offered attractive terms, and the kontor was moved to Dordt in May 1358. The blockade nearly caused a famine despite imperfect compliance by the Hansards. Count Louis II extended Hanseatic privileges to the whole of Flanders. [7] :67–68

But the context of the Hundred Years' War made it difficult for Bruges to keep the generous terms of the agreement and customs were raised. An attempt to move the kontor out in the winter 1377/1378 failed. Count Louis II supported Bruges. Worserning war conditions and a revolt in Ghent drove the merchants away, so few were around at the time of the Battle of Roosebeke. Louis died in 1384 and the League opened negotiations with the new count, Philip the Bold. Excessive demands by the Hanse's representatives made negotiations fail. The kontor temporarily moved to Dordrecht in 1388, again invited by Albert I. A total Hanseatic embargo was placed on Flanders, it was only lightened in 1389 to allow the Teutonic Order to sell amber. Intervention by the Prussian towns and the grand master of the Teutonic Knights enabled a resolution in late 1391. The Hanseatic privileges were restored and the merchants received a large compensation. [7] :80–81

Beginning of decline

Bruges' importance for Hanseatic trade fell quickly after the embargo was resolved in 1392, [3] :187 especially affecting the cloth trade. Hansards began to look for other sources, like England. [1] :143

After 1390 Europe faced its first great scarcity of precious metal in centuries. The council of Bruges became convinced that the shortage was caused by hoarding by foreign merchants and issued an ordinance in September 1399 that required that credit was paid in cash with increasing shares of gold from 1 May 1400 and reaching full force on 1 January 1401. The ordinance caused an acute shortage of cash and made credit volatile in Bruges. The Kontor of Bruges and Lübeck cooperated to instate a total ban on credit for Hanseatic traders on Flanders for 3 years from 2 July 1401. [8] :82

The Seven Wonders of Bruges by Pieter Claeissens the Elder. The orange building with the tower in the right background is the Oosterlingenhuis. The tip of the tower was destroyed in 1582 in a fire. Septem Admirationes Civitatis Brugensis.jpg
The Seven Wonders of Bruges by Pieter Claeissens the Elder. The orange building with the tower in the right background is the Oosterlingenhuis. The tip of the tower was destroyed in 1582 in a fire.

When Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy and overlord of Bruges, switched sides to France in the Hundred Years' War with the Treaty of Arras, political attitudes changed. Accused of English loyalties, 80 German merchants were killed in June 1436 at Sluis. The kontor was moved to Antwerp and a blockade again created a famine in Bruges, and the kontor returned after a renewal of the privileges. [7] :92

The Oosterlingenhuis in the 17th century. DomusOsterlingorum.jpg
The Oosterlingenhuis in the 17th century.

Construction of kontor buildings

The Hansards rented the Oosterlingenhuis ("Easterling house", it refers to Germans) from 1442 as their own guildhall. In 1478 its new guildhall buildings at the Oosterlingenplein were completed. But the kontor continued to use the canteen of the monastery of the Carmelite order. [1] :139–140 The monastery hasn't survived, while the façade of the Oostenlingenhuis doesn't exist anymore. [3] :181,184

Renewed complaints about breaches against privileges motivated the Hanseatic League to increase the economic power of the staple by expanding it. However it didn't resolve the issues and the kontor was relocated again. The destination would first be Deventer, but the Hanse decided for Utrecht in the end. Philip the Good occupied Utrecht in 1455. Negotiations resulted in the kontor's return in August 1457 with little gain. Merchants widely ignored the embargo and it would be the last Hanseatic embargo against Flanders. [7] :92 [3] :188

Remains of the Oosterlingenhuis, it's been split into two buildings. Oosterlingenplein.JPG
Remains of the Oosterlingenhuis, it's been split into two buildings.

Further decline and end

By the middle 15th century the closing up of the Zwin was starting to seriously harm Bruges' trade. [1] :132

Trade has deteriorated so much in the 16th century from the Zwin's closure that the Hanseatic League decided to move the kontor to Antwerp in 1520. The Oostershuis, completed about 1560, was built for it. [1] :132

Organisation

The Kontor of Bruges was, like the other kontors, a legal person established as a merchant corporation (universitas mercatorum) in a foreign trading city to facilitate Hanseatic trade. It had its own treasury, seal, code of rules, legal power to enforce rules on residents and administration. [2] :91 Security was the primary reason for establishing kontors, [1] :128–130 but they were also important for inspecting trade goods and diplomacy with local and regional authorities. Compared to other kontors, the Kontor of Bruges had an unusually strong and large administrative apparatus. [1] :138

Division and administration

In 1347 the Hansards were grouped into three "thirds" on their geographic origin: there was a Wendish-Saxon third, a Westphalian-Prussian third and a Gutnish-Livonian third. This mattered for administrative representation and for finances too, because the thirds had much organisation independence at Bruges. [2] :101 [1] :138–139

After the reform of 1347, there were 6 aldermen in Bruges who served for one year. Each third elected 2. The duties of the alderman was to see to the observance of the statutes by the Hansards and to represent the kontor to outsiders. The number of aldermen was in 1486 reduced to 3. [2] :100–101 [1] :138–139

There was also a board of 18 achteinen ("eighteen men"), deputies, who served for one year and had narrower tasks than the aldermen, but could also represent the kontor to outsiders. The number of achteinen was in 1486 reduced to 9. [2] :101 [1] :138–139

The organisation of the Bruges kontor was expanded in the middle of the 15th century with a new secretarial position, the clerk. A clerk was trained at university in the study of law and was highly literate in Latin and in difficult legal literature. His duties were to provide the aldermen with legal advice and to manage correspondence. The clerk was an attractive and influential position that could be held for several years. The clerks contributed to the kontor's professionalisation. [1] :135 [2] :101

Bruges' high degree of integration made it difficult for the kontor to control the Hansards' business and social interaction. [1] :133

One tool that the Hanseatic League could use to pressure Bruges was temporarily moving the kontor to other places like Dordrecht, Utrecht and Antwerp. This was something that happened repeatedly during the history of the Kontor of Bruges. [2] :98

Legislation and correspondence

The kontor had its own statutes that were read to the merchant community once a year and these applied in disputes between Hansards. All visiting Hanseatic traders in Bruges fell under the authority of the kontor's administration. The statutes in Bruges show the kontor's considerable independence in legal matters up to the mid 15th century, but after 1474 Hanseatic hometowns took control of the kontor's legislation, a trend that also happened in London. [1] :136, 142

The kontor communicated in Middle Low German, but it was a form that was very influenced by the Westphalian dialect (and not by the dialect of Lübeck) and coloured by Middle Dutch, even in communications with Hanseatic cities. [9] :92

The kontor's archives are kept in the Historical Archive of the City of Cologne. [3] :181

Life

Hanseatic activity in Bruges was not centred in a geographical enclave, unlike in the other kontors. Instead the Hansards were distributed generally speaking over the entire city, even if there was a concentration in some streets or neighbourhoods, making it the most spatially integrated kontor. Lodging and other space was rented from the city's local population, [1] :133 [2] :92 and they used a local system of deposit-banking offered by hostellers and moneylenders. [3] :186 In the 14th century Hansards were relatively concentrated in the Carmelite and St John's quarters. [3] :184

Bruges was a developed and cosmopolitan city that drew travellers from many cultures, speaking many languages. [1] :133 The Hansards mostly spoke the Middle Low German of their hometown, some spoke eastern Middle Dutch, while the people of Bruges spoke the Flemish Middle Dutch. The language barrier in Bruges between locals and Hansards was the smallest of any kontor. There were French, Spanish, Italian and Biscayan traders too, who usually communicated in French, the language also used by the social elite of Bruges. [3] :185–187 Bruges had up to 40000 inhabitants in the 14th century. In the 15th century a few hundred Hanseatic merchants stayed in Bruges, for a short or a long time, [2] :98 and they were the largest group by far, their activity likely peaking in the late 14th century. The Hansards were unusually involved in citylife. They sponsored the building of churches and, alone among foreign merchants, contributed to poor relief. Colognian merchants ran businesses that sold Rhenish wine in Weinstuben (bodegas), sometimes partnering with their hostellers. [3] :185,187

Trade

Bruges was the location of the Hanse's staple of cloth, and imported beeswax, fur and metals for the Low Countries, though the enforcement of the staple varied a lot. [10] :202

The main export good from Bruges was broadcloth. Flemish cities led in the production and sale of broadcloth from the 13th to the 15th centuries and Bruges was the foremost city in the broadcloth trade. The Hanseatic League transported it all over its trading area. From 1420 Bruges faced increasing competition from London and other English towns. The trade in broadcloth was the backbone of Hanseatic trade from the 13th to the 16th century. [11] :54–55 Also other types of cloth were bought. Hansards generally bought from local merchants as intermediates, and didn't seek out local producers unlike in their other markets. Other wares were books and other luxury goods. [1] :143

Hansards shipped copper from Slovakia, Hungary and Sweden to Bruges, where Flemish artisans made engraved copper plates for graves. These were in high demand all over Europe. The share of Hanseatic shipping in copper transport is not completely clear. [11] :57

Hanseatic merchants also purchased spices in large amounts, Bruges was one of a few sources for them. [1] :143

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hanseatic League</span> 1200s–1669 trade confederation in Northern Europe

The Hanseatic League was a medieval commercial and defensive network of merchant guilds and market towns in Central and Northern Europe. Growing from a few North German towns in the late 12th century, the League expanded between the 13th and 15th centuries and ultimately encompassed nearly 200 settlements across eight modern-day countries, ranging from Estonia in the north and east, to the Netherlands in the west, and extended inland as far as Cologne, the Prussian regions and Kraków, Poland.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of Cologne</span>

The History of Cologne covers over 2000 years of urban history. In the year 50, Cologne was elevated to a city under Roman law and named "Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium"; since the Frankish rule it is known as Cologne. The city became an influential merchant stronghold in the early Middle Ages due to its location on the Rhine, which allowed the most seasoned Cologne wholesalers to control the flow of goods from northern Italy to England. The archbishops promoted the perception of "Holy Cologne" when they developed the city to the capital of their Electorate of Cologne; to this end, they had both the semicircular city wall and the Gothic cologne cathedral built as a demonstration of power. In the 15th century, Cologne was able to shake off archiepiscopal rule and, as a Free Imperial City, enabled the burgher ruling class to achieve great splendor, visibly documented by the Cologne School of Painting. After the Thirty Years' War, however, the city's development stalled. Only after French occupation when in 1815, Cologne was incorporated into Prussia, the city experienced a steady upswing borne by industrialization. In 1880, the cathedral was completed as a national monument of German imperial unity providing the city with its well-known landmark. Extensive devastation in the Second World War was followed by decades of reconstruction, which only slowly restored Cologne to its emblematic urban panorama on the Rhine through the efforts of urban repair. Today with more than one million inhabitants, Cologne is the fourth largest city in Germany. It is primarily marketed as an event city, with Cologne Carnival being perceived as the biggest tourist attraction.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cog (ship)</span> Type of cargo ship of the 12th–14th centuries

A cog was a type of ship that was used during the Middle Ages, mostly for trade and transport but also in war. It first appeared in the 10th century, and was widely used from around the 12th century onward. Cogs were clinker-built, generally of oak. Cogs were fitted with a single mast and a single square sail. They were used primarily for trade in north-west medieval Europe, especially by the Hanseatic League. Typical seagoing cogs were from 15 to 25 meters long, 5 to 8 meters wide, and were of 30–200 tons burthen. Cogs were rarely as large as 300 tons although a few were considerably larger, over 1,000 tons.

The Steelyard, from the Middle Low German Stâlhof, was the kontor of the Hanseatic League in London, and their main trading base in England, between the 13th and 16th centuries. The main goods that the League exported from London were wool and from the 14th century woollen cloths. An important import good was beeswax. The kontor tended to be dominated by Rhenish and Westphalian traders, especially from Cologne.

Jácome de Bruges, 1st Captain-Donee of Terceira was the brother of Louis de Gruuthuse, 1st Earl of Winchester of the wealthy Gruuthuse noble family from Bruges, their grandfather Jean III d'Aa of Gruuthuse participated in the great tournament of Bruges on 11 March, 1393. Jácome became a servant of Prince Henry the Navigator of Portugal, who initiated the so-called Portuguese Age of Discovery in the 15th century.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Broadcloth</span> Dense, woven cloth, historically of wool

Broadcloth is a dense, plain woven cloth, historically made of wool. The defining characteristic of broadcloth is not its finished width but the fact that it was woven much wider and then heavily milled in order to shrink it to the required width. The effect of the milling process is to draw the yarns much closer together than could be achieved in the loom and allow the individual fibres of the wool to bind together in a felting process, which results in a dense, blind face cloth with a stiff drape which is highly weather-resistant, hard wearing and capable of taking a cut edge without the need for being hemmed.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kontor</span> Foreign trading post of the Hanseatic League

A kontor was a major foreign trading post of the Hanseatic League. Kontors were legal entities established in a foreign city, with a degree of legal autonomy. Most kontors were also enclaves. They were located, in London, Bruges, Bergen (Bryggen), and Novgorod (Peterhof). Smaller Hanseatic trading posts were called factorien, i.e., factories.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Company of Merchant Adventurers of London</span>

The Company of Merchant Adventurers of London was a trading company founded in the City of London in the early 15th century. It brought together leading merchants in a regulated company in the nature of a guild. Its members’ main business was exporting cloth, especially white (undyed) broadcloth, in exchange for a large range of foreign goods. It traded in northern European ports, competing with the Hanseatic League. It came to focus on Hamburg.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Factory (trading post)</span> Transshipment zone (5th- to 19th-century name)

Factory was the common name during the medieval and early modern eras for an entrepôt – which was essentially an early form of free-trade zone or transshipment point. At a factory, local inhabitants could interact with foreign merchants, often known as factors. First established in Europe, factories eventually spread to many other parts of the world. The origin of the word factory is from Latin factorium 'place of doers, makers'.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gruuthuse manuscript</span>

The Gruuthuse manuscript is a medieval compilation, the oldest core of which is dated about 1395, while the youngest unfinished contributions date from around 1408. The manuscript is the only known source for a large number of Middle Dutch texts.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cornelis Hooft</span> Dutch statesman and Amsterdam regent

Cornelis Pietersz. Hooft was a Dutch statesman and Amsterdam regent during the Golden Age.

The development of urban centres in the Low Countries shows the process by which the Low Countries, a region in Western Europe, evolved from a highly rural outpost of the Roman Empire into the largest urbanised area north of the Alps by the 15th century CE. As such, this article covers the development of Dutch and Flemish cities beginning at the end of the migration period till the end of the Dutch Golden Age.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hanseaten (class)</span> Historical ruling class of Hamburg, Lübeck and Bremen

The Hanseaten is a collective term for the hierarchy group consisting of elite individuals and families of prestigious rank who constituted the ruling class of the free imperial city of Hamburg, conjointly with the equal First Families of the free imperial cities of Bremen and Lübeck. The members of these First Families were the persons in possession of hereditary grand burghership of these cities, including the mayors, the senators, joint diplomats and the senior pastors. Hanseaten refers specifically to the ruling families of Hamburg, Lübeck and Bremen, but more broadly, this group is also referred to as patricians along with similar social groups elsewhere in continental Europe.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bruges</span> Capital of West Flanders province, Belgium

Bruges is the capital and largest city of the province of West Flanders in the Flemish Region of Belgium, in the northwest of the country. It is the sixth most populous city in the country.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Scottish trade in the Middle Ages</span> Trade in medieval Scotland

The information about Scotland's domestic and foreign trade during the Middle Ages is limited. In the early Middle Ages the rise of Christianity meant that wine and precious metals were imported for use in religious rites. Imported goods found in archaeological sites of the period include ceramics and glass, while many sites indicate iron and precious metal working. The slave trade was also important and in the Irish Sea it may have been stimulated by the arrival of the Vikings from the late eighth century.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">County of Flanders</span> Historical territory in present-day Belgium, France, and the Netherlands

The County of Flanders was one of the most powerful political entities in the medieval Low Countries, located on the North Sea coast of what is now Belgium. Unlike its neighbours, such as the counties of Brabant and Hainaut, it was within the territory of the Kingdom of France. The counts of Flanders held the most northerly part of the kingdom, and were among the original twelve peers of France. For centuries, the economic activity of the Flemish cities, such as Ghent, Bruges and Ypres, made Flanders one of the most affluent regions in Europe, and also gave them strong international connections to trading partners.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dano-Swedish War (1501–1512)</span>

The Dano-Swedish War from 1501 to 1512 was a military conflict between Denmark and Sweden within the Kalmar Union.

Baltic maritime trade began in the Late Middle Ages and continued to develop into the early modern period. During this time, ships carrying goods from the Baltic and North Sea passed along the Øresund, or the Sound, connecting areas like the Gulf of Finland to the Skagerrak. Over a period of 400 years, maritime powers in the east and west struggled to control these markets and the trade routes between them. The Baltic trading system of this era can be explained as beginning with the Hanseatic League and ending with the Great Nordic War.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Peterhof (Novgorod)</span> Hanseatic kontor in Novgorod

The Peterhof or Petershof was a Hanseatic kontor, one of the four major trading posts of the Hanseatic League, on the right bank of the Volkhov at Novgorod, Russia, then forming the Novgorod Republic. It was named after St. Peter's Church, a Catholic church that was used by the Hanseatic merchants. It eventually consisted of two parts, the palissaded enclave, called the Peterhof proper, further uphill from the river Volkhov, and a beachyard, the Gotenhof, on the river that was eventually included in the Peterhof. Baltic trade, including Novgorod's trade, was dominated by the Hanseatic League from the 13th to 15th centuries. It was first shut down in 1494 by Ivan III of Russia, but later reopened although a terminal decline could not be halted.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hildebrand Veckinchusen</span> A merchant living in Bruges at the time of the Hanseatic League

Hildebrand Veckinchusen was a merchant living in Bruges at the time of the Hanseatic League. In addition to the fact that Hildebrand and his brother Sivert were among the most respected Hanseatic merchants of their time, Veckinchusen is of outstanding importance for research into the business practices and lives of merchants in the late Middle Ages due to the survival of more than 500 letters and ten trade books.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Burkhardt, Mike (2015). "Kontors and Outposts". In Harreld, Donald J. (ed.). A Companion to the Hanseatic League. Brill's Companions to European History. Leiden, Boston: Brill. pp. 127–161. ISBN   978-90-0428-288-9.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Wubs-Mrozewicz, Justyna (2010). "De Kantoren van de Hanze: Bergen, Brugge, Londen en Nowgorod" [The Kontors of the Hanseatic League: Bergen, Brugge, London and Novgorod]. In Brand, Hanno; Egge, Knol (eds.). Koggen, kooplieden en kantoren: de Hanze, een praktisch netwerk [Cogs, merchants and offices: the Hanze, a practical network] (hardcover) (in Dutch) (1st ed.). Hilversum & Groningen: Uitgeverij Verloren & Groninger Museum. ISBN   978-90-8704-165-6.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Murray, James M (2012). "That well-grounded error: Bruges as Hansestadt". In Wubs-Mrozewicz, Justyna (ed.). The Hanse in Medieval and Early Modern Europe (hardcover) (1st ed.). Leiden: Brill. ISBN   9789004241930.
  4. Hammel-Kiesow, Rolf (2015). "The Early Hansas". In Harreld, Donald J. (ed.). A Companion to the Hanseatic League. Brill's Companions to European History. Leiden, Boston: Brill. pp. 15–63. ISBN   978-90-04-28288-9.
  5. 1 2 Henn, Volker (2010). "Het ontstaan van de Hanze [The coming into being of the Hanseatic League]". In Brand, Hanno; Egge, Knol (eds.). Koggen, kooplieden en kantoren: de Hanze, een praktisch netwerk [Cogs, merchants and offices: the Hanze, a practical network] (hardcover) (in Dutch) (1st ed.). Hilversum & Groningen: Uitgeverij Verloren & Groninger Museum. ISBN   978-90-8704-165-6.
  6. Brand, Hanno (2010). "De bestuurlijke slagkracht van de 'Stedenhanze'" [The organisational strength of the Hanseatic Cities]. In Brand, Hanno; Egge, Knol (eds.). Koggen, kooplieden en kantoren: de Hanze, een praktisch netwerk [Cogs, merchants and offices: the Hanze, a practical network] (hardcover) (in Dutch) (1st ed.). Hilversum & Groningen: Uitgeverij Verloren & Groninger Museum. ISBN   978-90-8704-165-6.
  7. 1 2 3 4 Sarnowsky, Jürgen (2015). "The 'Golden Age' of the Hanseatic League". In Harreld, Donald J. (ed.). A Companion to the Hanseatic League. Brill's Companions to European History. Leiden, Boston: Brill. pp. 64–100. ISBN   978-90-04-28288-9.
  8. Jenks, Stuart (2010). "Concurrentie" [Competition]. In Brand, Hanno; Egge, Knol (eds.). Koggen, kooplieden en kantoren: de Hanze, een praktisch netwerk [Cogs, merchants and offices: the Hanze, a practical network] (hardcover) (in Dutch) (1st ed.). Hilversum & Groningen: Uitgeverij Verloren & Groninger Museum. ISBN   978-90-8704-165-6.
  9. Niebaum, Hermann (2010). "Taal en communicatie in het Hanzegebied" [Language and communication in the Hanseatic area]. In Brand, Hanno; Egge, Knol (eds.). Koggen, kooplieden en kantoren: de Hanze, een praktisch netwerk [Cogs, merchants and offices: the Hanze, a practical network] (hardcover) (in Dutch) (1st ed.). Hilversum & Groningen: Uitgeverij Verloren & Groninger Museum. ISBN   978-90-8704-165-6.
  10. Dollinger, Philippe (2000). The German Hansa. London & New York: Routledge. ISBN   978-0-415-19073-2 via books.google.com.
  11. 1 2 Jahnke, Carsten (2010). "7. De Hanze en de Europese economie in the middeleeuwen [The Hanseatic League and the European economy in the Middle Ages]". In Brand, Hanno; Egge, Knol (eds.). Koggen, kooplieden en kantoren: de Hanze, een praktisch netwerk [Cogs, merchants and offices: the Hanze, a practical network] (hardcover) (in Dutch) (1st ed.). Hilversum & Groningen: Uitgeverij Verloren & Groninger Museum. ISBN   978-90-8704-165-6.