Mucor plumbeus

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Mucor plumbeus
Mucor plumbeus.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Mucoromycota
Order: Mucorales
Family: Mucoraceae
Genus: Mucor
Species:
M. plumbeus
Binomial name
Mucor plumbeus
Bonord. (1864)
Synonyms
  • Mucor spinosus Tieghem (1878)
  • Mucor brunneusNaumov (1935)
  • Mucor brunneogriseusA.K.Sarbhoy (1968)

Mucor plumbeus is a fungus in the family Mucoraceae (subphylum Mucoromycotina) that is very common, abundant and distributed worldwide. [1] [2] Mucor plumbeus is not known to be a plant or animal pathogen; however it is able to elicit an immune response in humans by activating the complement system. [2] This species is commonly found in various types of soils over a range of pH, although alkaline soils seem more conducive to its growth. [2] It is also known from the roots of wheat, oat and barley. [2] In addition, M. plumbeus is a common fungal contaminant of indoor built environments. [3] This species shares many similarities with M. racemosus , another fungus that belongs to the family Mucoraceae which is known to cause mucormycosis. [4] Mucor plumbeus is a common spoilage agent of cheese, apples, apple cider and yogurt. [4] [5]

Contents

Morphology and reproduction

Mucor plumbeus produces columella with distinctive, darkly pigmented, finger-like apical projections. [6] [4] Sporangiophores (structures bearing asexual spores) exhibit sympodial and monopodial branching. [2] The appearance of sporangia of M. plumbeus changes throughout development from hyaline at first becoming dark brown colour at maturity. [2] Sporangiospores are spherical, ranging from 5–7 to 8–10 μm in diameter. [2] Zygospores are also darkly coloured, though much larger than sporangiospores with an average diameter of approximately 85 μm. [2] Zygospores are ornamented with short star-shaped spines (length of 3 μm). [2] The mating system is heterothallic. [2]

Growth on Czapek Yeast Extract Agar (CYA) and Malt Extract Agar (MEA) produces colonies at least 50 mm in diameter, often spreading across the petri dish. The mycelium appear colourless with an overall colour of pale to deep grey from the sporangia. [4] Growth on G25N medium produces colonies 20–35 mm in diameter, which appear white to pale yellow brown. [4] Mucor plumbeus spores are commonly airborne, which could explain their vast distribution. [2] Chlamydospores have at times been found within sporangiophores. [2]

Physiology

Mucor plumbeus colonies grown in culture were found to develop in the presence of ammonium chloride, L-histidine and urea, suggesting that these compounds are utilised as a nitrogen source. [2] Mucor plumbeus can also use sucrose, D-mannose, D-sorbitol and citric acid as sources of carbon. [2] Zygospores were found to be unable to grow in culture. [4] Mucor plumbeus is capable of growing from 4–5 °C (39–41 °F) to 35 °C (95 °F). [4] The optimal temperature range for growth and sporulation to occur at was found to be 5–20 °C (41–68 °F). [2] It does not grow at 37 °C (99 °F). [4] Primary growth of M. plumbeus was found to be greatly suppressed by garlic extract in in-vivo growth studies. [2] Sporulation can be suppressed by rubratoxin B. [2] Mucor plumbeus can cause self inhibition of its germinating spores with the production of certain factors such as nonanoic acid. [2] In a study conducted to determine the antifungal capabilities of different mixtures of cinnamon and clove oil against various important spoilage microorganisms, M. plumbeus was discovered to be amongst the most resistant organisms. [7] This study also revealed that thymol has effective inhibitory action against M. plumbeus. [7] In nature, M. plumbeus can be found in soils with a wide range in pH - particularly into the alkaline range. [2] The minimum water activity (aw) for growth was reported to be 0.93. [4] The growth of M. plumbeus varied with different gas concentrations. Growth in N2 was 80% of that in air. [4] Growth also occurred in an atmosphere of more than 97% CO2 with trace amounts of O2. [4] Growth on cheddar cheese in an atmosphere of: 20% CO2 and 5% O2 was 50% of that in air; 20% CO2 and 1% O2 was 40% of that in air; 40% CO2 and 5% O2 was 50% of that in air; 40% CO2 and 1% O2 was 30% of that in air. [4]

Symbiotic interactions

Hyphae of Mucor plumbeus have been found to be invaded by the hyperparasitic fungi Trichoderma viride and Synchephalis californica. [2] In addition, Mucor plumbeus produces a gas that stimulates the growth of Phytophthora citrophthora, a plant pathogen. [8] The presence of M. plumbeus stimulates the fruiting of Pilobolus kleinii due to the production of ammonia. [9]

Health implications

As of yet, there have not been any reported cases of mycosis associated with M. plumbeus. [2] However, studies have revealed that the spores of M. plumbeus have the ability to activate the complement system in humans via the alternative pathway. [2] In addition, studies involving various complement proteins on fungal surfaces suggest that M. plumbeus spores can activate all pathways of the complement system. [10] Mucor plumbeus is not known to produce any mycotoxins. [4]

Distribution

Mucor plumbeus is distributed worldwide. [2] Samples of M. plumbeus have been collected in numerous countries: as far north as Germany, Austria, Switzerland; as far east as Philippines, Indonesia; as far west as California and far south as South Africa. [2] It is found in dust, soil and hypersaline water. [11] Mucor plumbeus tolerates many soil types: including grassland, desert soils and heathland and has been isolated from the roots of alfalfa, oats, barley, Holcus mollis and other Australian heathland plants. [2] In addition, it has been isolated from bird feathers, hay, decomposing plant debris, dung from different animals, fresh water, wood pulp, beech bark, wood timbers used in a copper mine, seeds of wheat and oat, and pecans. [2] In the indoor built environment, M. plumbeus has been isolated from HVAC filters and has been detected in hospital air. [12] In addition, M. plumbeus has been found to be associated with mould growth on concrete and other floor related materials and house dust. [11] [13] It is also known from foods such as meat, nuts and cereals, and has been isolated in low levels from black rice in Thailand, soybeans in the Philippines and from coriander in Indonesia. [4]

Chemistry

A range of polysaccharides have been found in the extracellular and intracellular compartments of M. plumbeus including fucose, glucose, galactose and mannose. [2] Glucuronic acid, a carbohydrate with a similar structure to glucose, is located specifically in the extracellular region of M. plumbeus. [2] The monosaccharide glucosamine was found only in the intracellular regions of M. plumbeus. [2] Mucor plumbeus has the ability to detoxify pentachlorophenol and has been used in the biotransformation of other products. [14] [10] Incubation of M. plumbeus with the natural product maalioxide produces three metabolites (1,7 and 9 β-hydroxymaalioxide). [15] Mucor plumbeus activity towards camphorquinone is stereoselective. [16] Extracts of Mucor plumbeus have shown acetylcholinesterase enzyme inhibition activity. [17] Mucor plumbeus is able to biocatalyze the hydroxylation of terpenes and steroids by cytochrome p450 enzymes in the presence of O2 and cofactor NADPH. [18] Mucor plumbeus also transforms sesquiterpene into a series of 12 degradation products of 10,15-epoxidation. [18] As well, squamulosone (aromadendr-1(10)-en-9-one) is biotransformed by M. plumbeus to yield an array of terpenes. [18]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mold</span> Wooly, dust-like fungal structure or substance

A mold or mould is one of the structures that certain fungi can form. The dust-like, colored appearance of molds is due to the formation of spores containing fungal secondary metabolites. The spores are the dispersal units of the fungi. Not all fungi form molds. Some fungi form mushrooms; others grow as single cells and are called microfungi.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Zygomycota</span> Division or phylum of the kingdom Fungi

Zygomycota, or zygote fungi, is a former division or phylum of the kingdom Fungi. The members are now part of two phyla: the Mucoromycota and Zoopagomycota. Approximately 1060 species are known. They are mostly terrestrial in habitat, living in soil or on decaying plant or animal material. Some are parasites of plants, insects, and small animals, while others form symbiotic relationships with plants. Zygomycete hyphae may be coenocytic, forming septa only where gametes are formed or to wall off dead hyphae. Zygomycota is no longer recognised as it was not believed to be truly monophyletic.

<i>Mucor</i> Genus of fungi

Mucor is a microbial genus of approximately 40 species of molds in the family Mucoraceae. Species are commonly found in soil, digestive systems, plant surfaces, some cheeses like Tomme de Savoie, rotten vegetable matter and iron oxide residue in the biosorption process.

<i>Mortierella</i> Genus of fungi

Mortierella species are soil fungi belonging to the order Mortierellales within the subphylum Mortierellomycotina. The widespread genus contains about 85 species.

<i>Mucor mucedo</i> Species of fungus

Mucor mucedo, commonly known as the common pinmould, is a fungal plant pathogen and member of the phylum Mucoromycota and the genus Mucor. Commonly found on soil, dung, water, plants and moist foods, Mucor mucedo is a saprotrophic fungus found world-wide with 85 known strains. It is often mistaken for Rhizopus rots on fruits due to similar mould growth shape and colour. Contrastingly, however, Mucor mucedo is found to grow on a wide range of stored grains and plants, including cucumber and tomato. Discovered in Italy in 1729 by P.A. Micheli and later noted by Carl Linnaeus in 1753 in the Species Plantarum, Mucor mucedo was originally classified as Mucor vulgaris by Micheli but later classified synonymous under name Mucor mucedo. The species was redescribed as Ascophora mucedo by H.J. Tode in 1790 but this type resided in a stoloniferous habitat and was later made the type of new genus Rhizopus.

<i>Mucor racemosus</i> Species of fungus

Mucor racemosus is a rapidly growing, weedy mould belonging to the division Mucoromycota. It is one of the earliest fungi to be grown in pure culture and was first isolated in 1886. It has a worldwide distribution and colonizes many habitats such as vegetational products, soil and houses. The fungus is mostly known for its ability to exhibit both filamentous and yeast-like morphologies, often referred to as dimorphism. Stark differences are seen in both forms and conditions of the environment heavily affect the phases of the M. racemosus. Like many fungi, it also reproduces both sexually and asexually. The dimorphic capacity of this species has been proposed as an important factor in its pathogenicity and has enhanced the industrial importance. This species is considered an opportunistic pathogen, generally limited to immunocompromised individuals. It also been associated with allergy and inflammations of facial sinuses. Its association with allergy has made it a common fungus used in allergen medical testing. Industrial use of the fungus is in the production of enzymes and the manufacture of certain dairy foods.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Zoopagomycotina</span> Subdivision of fungi

The Zoopagomycotina are a subdivision of the fungal division Zygomycota sensu lato. It contains 5 families and 20 genera. Relationships among and within subphyla of Zygomycota are poorly understood, and their monophyly remains in question, so they are sometimes referred to by the informal name zygomycetes.

<i>Conidiobolus coronatus</i> Species of fungus

Conidiobolus coronatus is a saprotrophic fungus, first described by Costantin in 1897 as Boudierella coronata. Though this fungus has also been known by the name Entomophthora coronata, the correct name is Conidiobolus coronatus. C. coronatus is able to infect humans and animals, and the first human infection with C. coronatus was reported in Jamaica in 1965.

<i>Spinellus fusiger</i> Species of fungus

Spinellus fusiger, commonly known as bonnet mold, is a species of fungus in the phylum Mucoromycota. It is a pin mold that is characterized by erect sporangiophores that are simple in structure, brown or yellowish-brown in color, and with branched aerial filaments that bear the zygospores. It grows as a parasitic mold on mushrooms, including several species from the genera Mycena, including M. haematopus, M. pura, M. epipterygia, M. leptocephala, and various Collybia species, such as C. alkalivirens, C. luteifolia, C. dryophila, and C. butyracea. It has also been found growing on agaric species in Amanita, Gymnopus, and Hygrophorus.

<i>Lichtheimia corymbifera</i> Species of fungus

Lichtheimia corymbifera is a thermophilic fungus in the phylum Zygomycota. It normally lives as a saprotrophic mold, but can also be an opportunistic pathogen known to cause pulmonary, CNS, rhinocerebral, or cutaneous infections in animals and humans with impaired immunity.

<i>Epicoccum nigrum</i> Species of fungus

Epicoccum nigrum is a species of fungus in the phylum Ascomycota. A plant pathogen and endophyte, it is a widespread fungus which produces coloured pigments that can be used as antifungal agents against other pathogenic fungi. The fluorescent stain epicocconone is extracted from it.

Cunninghamella bertholletiae is a species of zygomycetous fungi in the order Mucorales. It is found globally, with increased prevalence in Mediterranean and subtropical climates. It typically grows as a saprotroph and is found in a wide variety of substrates, including soil, fruits, vegetables, nuts, crops, and human and animal waste. Although infections are still rare, C. betholletiae is emerging as an opportunistic human pathogen, predominantly in immunocompromised people, leukemia patients, and people with uncontrolled diabetes. Cunninghamella bertholletiae infections are often highly invasive, and can be more difficult to treat with antifungal drugs than infections with other species of the Mucorales, making prompt and accurate recognition and diagnosis of mycoses caused by this fungus an important medical concern.

<i>Rhizopus oryzae</i> Species of fungus

Rhizopus oryzae is a filamentous heterothallic microfungus that occurs as a saprotroph in soil, dung, and rotting vegetation. This species is very similar to Rhizopus stolonifer, but it can be distinguished by its smaller sporangia and air-dispersed sporangiospores. It differs from R. oligosporus and R. microsporus by its larger columellae and sporangiospores. The many strains of R. oryzae produce a wide range of enzymes such as carbohydrate digesting enzymes and polymers along with a number of organic acids, ethanol and esters giving it useful properties within the food industries, bio-diesel production, and pharmaceutical industries. It is also an opportunistic pathogen of humans causing mucormycosis.

<i>Cunninghamella echinulata</i> Species of fungus

Cunninghamella echinulata is a fungal species in the genus Cunninghamella. It is an asexually reproducing fungus and a mesophile, preferring intermediate temperature ranges. C. echinulata is a common air contaminant, and is currently of interest to the biotechnology industry due to its ability to synthesize γ-linolenic acid as well as its capacity to bioconcentrate metals. This species is a soil saprotroph that forms rhizoids, preferring soils enriched in nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. It has been reported occasionally an agent of mucormycosis following the inhalation of fungal spores. Czapek's agar is a suitable growth medium for the propagation of C. echinulata.

<i>Aspergillus clavatus</i> Species of fungus

Aspergillus clavatus is a species of fungus in the genus Aspergillus with conidia dimensions 3–4.5 x 2.5–4.5 μm. It is found in soil and animal manure. The fungus was first described scientifically in 1834 by the French mycologist John Baptiste Henri Joseph Desmazières.

<i>Rhizopus stolonifer</i> Species of fungus

Rhizopus stolonifer is commonly known as black bread mold. It is a member of Zygomycota and considered the most important species in the genus Rhizopus. It is one of the most common fungi in the world and has a global distribution although it is most commonly found in tropical and subtropical regions. It is a common agent of decomposition of stored foods. Like other members of the genus Rhizopus, R. stolonifer grows rapidly, mostly in indoor environments.

<i>Mucor circinelloides</i> Species of fungus

Mucor circinelloides is a dimorphic fungus belonging to the Order Mucorales. It has a worldwide distribution, found mostly in soil, dung and root vegetables. This species is described as not known to be able to produce mycotoxins, however it has been frequently reported to infect animals such as cattle and swine, as well as fowl, platypus and occasionally humans. Ketoacidotic patients are particularly at risk for infection by M. circinelloides.

Cladosporium herbarum is a common fungus found worldwide in organic and inorganic matter. It is efficiently distributed in the air, where it exists as the most frequently occurring fungal species. It can grow over a wide range of temperatures including very cold environments, giving it the ability to grow on refrigerated meat and form "black spots". Its high prevalence in the air and production of allergens makes C. herbarum an important exacerbant of asthma and hay fever.

<i>Mortierella polycephala</i> Species of fungus

Mortierella polycephala is a saprotrophic fungus with a wide geographical distribution occurring in many different habitats from soil and plants to salt marshes and slate slopes. It is the type species of the genus Mortierella, and was first described in 1863 by Henri Coemans. A characteristic feature of the fungus is the presence of stylospores, which are aerial, spiny resting spores (chlamydospores).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mucoromycota</span> Diverse group of molds

Mucoromycota is a division within the kingdom fungi. It includes a diverse group of various molds, including the common bread molds Mucor and Rhizopus. It is a sister phylum to Dikarya.

References

  1. ↑ Camara-Lemarroy, CR; González-Moreno, EI; Rodríguez-Gutiérrez, R; Rendón-Ramírez, EJ; Ayala-Cortés, AS; Fraga-Hernández, ML; García-Labastida, L; Galarza-Delgado, DÁ (2014). "Clinical features and outcome of mucormycosis". Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Infectious Diseases. 2014: 562610. doi: 10.1155/2014/562610 . PMC   4158140 . PMID   25210515.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 Domsch, Klaus (1995). Compendium of Soil Fungi. Vol. 28. Lubrecht & Cramer Ltd. pp. 63–64. Bibcode:1982Geode..28...63M. doi:10.1016/0016-7061(82)90042-8. ISBN   978-3980308380.{{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)
  3. ↑ Heinsohn, [edited by] Chin S. Yang, Patricia (2007). Sampling and analysis of indoor microorganisms. Pacifica, Calif: Wiley Interscience. ISBN   978-0-471-73093-4.{{cite book}}: |first1= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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  5. ↑ Kilcast, edited by David; Subramaniam, Persis (2011). Food and beverage stability and shelf life. Oxford: Woodhead Pub. ISBN   978-1-84569-701-3.{{cite book}}: |first1= has generic name (help)
  6. ↑ Onions, A.H.S.; Allsopp, D.; Eggins, H.O.W. (1981). Smith's introduction of industrial mycology (7. ed.). London: Arnold. ISBN   978-0-7131-2811-6.
  7. 1 2 Paliyath, edited by Rajeev Bhat, Abd Karim Alias, Gopinadhan (2012). Progress in food preservation. Oxford, UK: Wiley. ISBN   978-0470655856.{{cite book}}: |first1= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  8. ↑ BITANCOURT, AA; ROSSETTI, V (1951). "Stimulation of growth of Phytophthora citrophthora by a gas produced by Mucor spinosus". Science. 113 (2940): 531. Bibcode:1951Sci...113..531B. doi:10.1126/science.113.2940.531. PMID   14828395.
  9. ↑ al.], P.C. Mishra ... [et (1995). Advances in ecology and environmental sciences. New Delhi: Ashish Pub. House. ISBN   978-8170246763.
  10. 1 2 Granja, LF; Pinto, L; Almeida, CA; Alviano, DS; Da Silva, MH; Ejzemberg, R; Alviano, CS (2010). "Spores of Mucor ramosissimus, Mucor plumbeus and Mucor circinelloides and their ability to activate human complement system in vitro". Medical Mycology. 48 (2): 278–84. doi: 10.3109/13693780903096669 . PMID   20141371.
  11. 1 2 Andersen, B; Frisvad, JC; Søndergaard, I; Rasmussen, IS; Larsen, LS (2011). "Associations between fungal species and water-damaged building materials". Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 77 (12): 4180–8. doi:10.1128/aem.02513-10. PMC   3131638 . PMID   21531835.
  12. ↑ Miller, edited by Brian Flannigan, Robert A. Samson, J. David (2011). Microorganisms in home and indoor work environments : diversity, health impacts, investigation and control (2nd ed.). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. ISBN   9781420093346.{{cite book}}: |first1= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  13. ↑ Gravesen, S (1978). "Identification and prevalence of culturable mesophilic microfungi in house dust from 100 Danish homes. Comparison between airborne and dust-bound fungi". Allergy. 33 (5): 268–72. doi:10.1111/j.1398-9995.1978.tb01547.x. PMID   362974. S2CID   33760754.
  14. ↑ Carvalho, MB; Martins, I; Medeiros, J; Tavares, S; Planchon, S; Renaut, J; Núñez, O; Gallart-Ayala, H; Galceran, MT; Hursthouse, A; Silva Pereira, C (2013). "The response of Mucor plumbeus to pentachlorophenol: a toxicoproteomics study". Journal of Proteomics. 78: 159–71. doi:10.1016/j.jprot.2012.11.006. PMID   23178873.
  15. ↑ Wang, Y; Tan, TK; Tan, GK; Connolly, JD; Harrison, LJ (2006). "Microbial transformation of the sesquiterpenoid (−)-maalioxide by Mucor plumbeus". Phytochemistry. 67 (1): 58–61. doi:10.1016/j.phytochem.2005.09.030. PMID   16293273.
  16. ↑ de Souza, GG; Anconi, CP; Cornelissen, S; De Almeida, WB; Dos Santos, HF; Fortes, IC; Takahashi, JA (2009). "Selective activity of Mucor plumbeus reductase towards (−)-camphorquinone". Journal of Industrial Microbiology & Biotechnology. 36 (8): 1023–7. doi:10.1007/s10295-009-0583-2. PMID   19437056. S2CID   23222632.
  17. ↑ Şener, Bilge, ed. (2009). Innovations in Chemical Biology. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. ISBN   978-1-4020-6955-0.
  18. 1 2 3 al.], editors, Yi-Zhun Zhu ... [et (2007). Natural products essential resources for human survival. New Jersey: World Scientific. ISBN   978-9812707444.{{cite book}}: |first1= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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