Multilingualism and globalization

Last updated

Globalization has had major effects on the spread and ascribed value of multilingualism. Multilingualism is considered the use of more than one language by an individual or community of speakers. [1] Globalization is commonly defined as the international movement toward economic, trade, technological, and communications integration and concerns itself with interdependence and interconnectedness. As a result of the interconnectedness brought on by globalization, languages are being transferred between communities, cultures, and economies at an increasingly fast pace. [1] Therefore, though globalization is widely seen as an economic process, it has resulted in linguistic shifts on a global scale, including the recategorization of privileged languages, the commodification of multilingualism, the Englishization of the globalized workplace, and varied experiences of multilingualism along gendered lines.

Contents

Language Contact, Categories, and Powers

Multilingualism is considered a form of language contact. [1] This contact occurs when language communities, through obligation or choice, come in contact with one another. [1] Multilingualism is therefore considered both a tool and a symptom of forces that necessitate or encourage contact between communities. Globalization is one of those forces.

Researchers accept that there are multiple categories of language, even as they often disagree on the explicit number of those categories. De Swaan's analysis of the world language system, which is arguably the most common analysis, distinguishes between five different types of languages, one of which is "English as global lingua franca. [2] " English is “hypercentral” to globalization as a result of both its common international use and its “highly prized” nature. [2] Because English serves as lingua franca in so many international contexts (tourism, business, academia, science, etc.), most linguists place it outside the categories of majority language or minority language even if, functionally, it could be either one. These language categories create hierarchies of power in a globalized system in which minority language speakers who also speak a majority language are afforded more access and privilege than those who only speak only a minority language. [3] Outside of contexts in which English is a national (and thus majority) language, those who are multilingual in English and another language are offered even more access and privilege in global society. [3] For that reason, South Korea and China have been made a tremendous investments on their English language education. It is reported by Statistics Korea and the Korean Ministry of Education that South Korea has invested more than 30% of the $15 billion private education cost in the English language training. [4] Moreover, based on the Ambient Insight's report, there are more than 50,000 privately-operated English language institutes established in China. [4] Furthermore, economically, being a bilingual who are able to use English and another language is worth generating no less than $128,000 during a 40-year period of economic activity. [5]

Multilingualism as Global Capital

French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu views language, and more specifically multilingual skills, as a form of social and symbolic capital that follows speakers as they search for work and power both locally and transnationally. [3] Bourdieu's views have been highly influential in study of language and power. He posits that by transforming social and symbolic capital into economic capital, the multilingual is at an advantage. [3] In short, language is commodified for use in globalized society. As a result, multilinguals may have labor market advantages over monolinguals in their ability to work with global customers. Studies demonstrate that multilingualism is positively correlated with higher salaries and gross domestic production (GDP). One study out of Switzerland suggests that Switzerland's GDP is augmented by multilingualism by 10%. [6] According to the study by Wharton and LECG Europe, acquiring another language has the effect of increasing one's annual salary by approximately 2%. [7] In addition, American military personnel could potentially make up to $1,000 per month if they have a good command of foreign languages, according to Money magazine. [7] Furthermore, recent researches have demonstrated that the brains of people who can speak a variety of languages are superior than those of people who speak only one language and have a significantly lower risk of developing Alzheimer's and other types of dementia diseases. [8] This health benefits would contribute to a long term economic gain in the global market as it enables them to perform better and work longer at their workplace.

This is not, however, the only way that multilingualism is commodified; multilingualism, especially that which is inclusive of English, is also commodified in elementary and secondary education, adult education, government, the military, and elsewhere in society. This bears out in the higher salaries offered to multilingual workers as well as in the global push for language education. [1]

Englishization and English Imperialism

Englishization is the use of English as global lingua franca whereby English replaces the local language as a means of communication, especially in organizations, in an attempt to compete economically in a globalized society. [9] Englishization is treated largely as a necessity in business, testament by the rise in English multilingualism as a work requirement in an increasing number of industries, regions, and organizations and by the rise in English as a Foreign Language programs beginning in the 1990s. [1] [9] In Qatar, for example, there is an English-language nursing program aimed at foreign workers who wish to enter the medical field in Qatar. [10] In addition, when applying for a job in South Korea, most local conglomerates like Samsung, LG, CJ, SK, and Doosan require the scores of the Test of English for International Communication (TOEIC), an English language exam that measures fluency in English of those who use English as their second language and need to use English in their workplace. [11]

While programs offering English language skills have broadened access to English internationally, they have been criticized for promoting linguistic imperialism, a phenomenon that entails the transfer of a dominant language to minority language speakers as a result of hegemonic and economic power structures. [12] Robert Phillipson popularized the term linguistic imperialism in 1992 and situated the concept of English spread inside economic and political terrain. [12] Typically, linguistic imperialism first increases multilingualism as speakers add the majority language to their knowledge base. Later, as the majority language demonstrates its ongoing use as capital, many speakers cease using their minority language. The consequences of linguistic imperialism include linguicide, bilingual subtraction, and linguistic devaluation. [13]

The spread of English multilingualism is not isolated to the somewhat recent confines of globalization, but has a long colonial history as well. [12] Suhanthie Motha argues that centuries of widespread colonial domination, exploitation, and deliberate English spread have led to modern-day epistemologies about empire and language value. [12] While globalization has furthered these, they were not absent before. [12]

Technology and English Multilingualism

Shifts in technology associated with globalization have also had an impact on multilingualism and on majority language use generally. Since the 1990s, the widespread use of the internet, and later of smart devices, has expanded the necessity of both receptive language skills like reading and listening and English multilingualism. [13] As evidence to support this, English was the very first language that was used on the internet and more than two-thirds of the information on the internet consisted of English by the mid-90s. [14]

Gender

Gender and multilingualism were first researched together in the early 1970s with the emergence of language and gender studies. [15] Early studies in the field of language and gender examined how gender affected access to the types of jobs that encouraged multilingualism. Those studies found men more likely to hold agricultural and production-based positions that valued and offered opportunities for multilingualism. As a result, higher percentages of men developed multilingual proficiencies, isolating women from access to certain jobs as a result of their monolingualism. [15]

The manner in which multilingualism is transferred to economic capital through globalization is also gendered. [16] Studies demonstrate that women are less successful in transforming linguistic capital to economic capital than their male counterparts. In a study of Swiss multilinguals, for example, researchers demonstrated that women see little difference in income based on proficiency levels above “basic,” whereas men continue to gain economic benefit from incremental gains between “basic” and “fluent. [16] ”

As the field of language and gender expanded in the 1990s, scholars began rejecting essentialist notions of language and gender in favor of exploring them as aspects of social identity. Around this time, researchers also began exploring the cultural underpinnings of language and gender in the workplace, identifying links between the ways in which minority women in particular related their undesirable social location to their use of a minority language. [2] Studies of minority-speaking women in both Austria and France suggest that women are more likely to shift toward the use of majority languages in the hopes of improving their economic and social prospects. [2] Bourdieu calls this a “misrecognition” of language as the cause of oppression by which women associate a shift in language as a means of liberation when language was not their oppressor to begin with. [2]

Education

As globalization has progressed rapidly, the dissemination of education on multilingualism has also gradually expanded. Japan is one of the states that realized the importance of the education. Japan's renowned Universities, with the government's active support, are increasingly accepting more international students and professors, publicizing foreign language education programs, and sending more students abroad through their study abroad programs. [17] For instance, Waseda University, one of the most prestigious private institution in Japan, is ranked as a top university in Japan for study abroad as it accepted 7,476 international students and sent 4,439 Japanese students abroad in 2017-2018. [18] The university also teaches 28 foreign languages offering 1,541 language courses. [18] In addition, South Korea is known as one of the countries that sends a large number of domestic students abroad, being ranked fourth in the world. [19] It was estimated by UNESCO's research in 2014 that in the country of 50 million people, there were 116,942 students pursued studying abroad. [19] It is known that the countries where Korean students prefer to study abroad are the United States, Japan, Australia, the United Kingdom, and Canada. [19] Moreover, based on the 2019 Open Doors' research, as of 2019, the total number of international students currently studying in the United States was reported to be 1,095,299. [20] It was also reported that 341,751 American students participated in the Education Abroad Program in 2018. [20] Among many destinations, Europe was the most popular among American students and more than half of the Education Abroad Program students were sent to European countries in 2018. [20] USA Study Abroad, a federal agency promoting the country's study abroad, has been encouraging 550 domestic students every year to go abroad and acquire foreign languages that would benefit the country's economy and security through their program called the Critical Language Scholarship (CLS). [21]

Growing demand of Multilingualism

The past and current world state is continuously becoming less and less homogeneous on a number of scales. Some of those could be broken down to the amount of information, international trade, capital and immigration different nation states participate in. This can also be measured by the Global Connectedness Index. This mass measurement scale is used to calculate the activities that countries participate in, more specifically the globalization actives listed above that contribute to their economy's wealth. [22] It was found by the Harvard Business Review in 2017 that the DHL had recorded their largest peak recording on the Global Connectedness Index scale to date. [23] As it is shown that our social and economic worlds are becoming more globalized, with it there is strong natural growing demand and need for multilingualism in both the economic and social spheres. The noticeable increase in globalization in the past has resulted in the UNICEF's support for multilingual programs in school systems. At the 2019 UNICEF Bangkok conference, Andrew Glass [24] the Director of British Council Thailand stated on behalf of the UNICEF, "Multilingual education prepares learners for the challenges of the 21st century, language sustains cultural diversity, connects people with cultures, aids in understanding, and builds trust,". [25] This statement made of behalf of the UNICEF has appropriately portrayed the rising levels of bi or multilingualism. Countries in different parts of the world, United States included are becoming more populated with persons living in a country separate from which they were born in. As of 2011 there are over 20 million people living in the United States who do not dominantly speak English, calling for more a linguistically equip workforce in the future. [26] The growing need for a more multilingual workforce is apparent in the U.S. according to survey and analysis completed in 2014. Multiple scholars from George town, Harvard, and Michigan University collected sample data from employers on their knowledge of a second language requirements for the hiring process. Its shown that across different business sizes a large proportion of employers actively seek out graduates who have ties with language nonnative to the area of employment. [27]      

Korean Wave

The relationship between listening to music and furthering the ability to retain a new language are found to be positively correlated. [28] People partake in listening to music to learn another language and some partake in learning a different language to be able to understand music. According to the Modern Language Association it was reported that in 2016 there was a noticeable steady increase of enrollment in Korean language university courses within the United States, correlated with the rise of the Korean wave [29] or "Hallyu." For example, from the late 1990s it has been recognized that a rise in the dissemination of Korean culture worldwide through music and media exists. [30]

Becoming multilingual for the sake of participating in Korean culture is one way the Korean wave has engaged in process of globalization, nonetheless there are also more notable instances as well. [31] According to the University of Hawaii Press populations outside of Korea in Israel and Palestine have been effected by this type of globalization. In places such as these locations that are now consuming Korean culture there are growing numbers in social science and anthropological academic writings written about countries whom are not their own, Korea being just one of them. [32] This process of widening the spectrum of information on world cultures readily available in different parts of the world is reversing the effects of homogenization of information in power states. [33]    

Related Research Articles

In bilingual education, students are taught in two languages. It is distinct from learning a second language as a subject because both languages are used for instruction in different content areas like math, science, and history. The time spent in each language depends on the model. For example, some models focus on providing education in both languages throughout a student's entire education while others gradually transition to education in only one language. The ultimate goal of bilingual education is fluency and literacy in both languages through a variety of strategies such as translanguaging and recasting.

Language education – the process and practice of teaching a second or foreign language – is primarily a branch of applied linguistics, but can be an interdisciplinary field. There are four main learning categories for language education: communicative competencies, proficiencies, cross-cultural experiences, and multiple literacies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Languages of China</span>

There are several hundred languages in China. The predominant language is Standard Chinese, which is based on Beijingese, but there are hundreds of related Chinese languages, collectively known as Hanyu, that are spoken by 92% of the population. The Chinese languages are typically divided into seven major language groups, and their study is a distinct academic discipline. They differ as much from each other morphologically and phonetically as do English, German and Danish, but meanwhile share the same writing system (Hanzi) and are mutually intelligible in written form. There are in addition approximately 300 minority languages spoken by the remaining 8% of the population of China. The ones with greatest state support are Mongolian, Tibetan, Uyghur and Zhuang.

Linguistic imperialism or language imperialism is occasionally defined as "the transfer of a dominant language to other people". This language "transfer" comes about because of imperialism. The transfer is considered to be a sign of power; traditionally military power but also, in the modern world, economic power. Aspects of the dominant culture are usually transferred along with the language. In spatial terms, indigenous languages are employed in the function of official (state) languages in Eurasia, while only non-indigenous imperial (European) languages in the "Rest of the World". In the modern world, linguistic imperialism may also be considered in the context of international development, affecting the standard by which organizations like the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank evaluate the trustworthiness and value of structural adjustment loans.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Robert Phillipson</span> British linguist

Robert Henry Lawrence Phillipson is Professor Emeritus in the Department of Management, Society and Communication at Copenhagen Business School in Denmark. He is best known for his seminal work on linguistic imperialism and language policy in Europe.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Language immersion</span> Use of two languages across a variety of educational subjects

Language immersion, or simply immersion, is a technique used in bilingual language education in which two languages are used for instruction in a variety of topics, including math, science, or social studies. The languages used for instruction are referred to as the L1 and the L2 for each student, with L1 being the student's native language and L2 being the second language to be acquired through immersion programs and techniques. There are different types of language immersion that depend on the age of the students, the classtime spent in L2, the subjects that are taught, and the level of participation by the speakers of L1.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Language death</span> Process in which a language eventually loses its last native speaker

In linguistics, language death occurs when a language loses its last native speaker. By extension, language extinction is when the language is no longer known, including by second-language speakers, when it becomes known as an extinct language. A related term is linguicide, the death of a language from natural or political causes, and, rarely, glottophagy, the absorption or replacement of a minor language by a major language.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Multilingualism</span> Use of multiple languages

Multilingualism is the use of more than one language, either by an individual speaker or by a group of speakers. It is believed that multilingual speakers outnumber monolingual speakers in the world's population. More than half of all Europeans claim to speak at least one language other than their mother tongue; but many read and write in one language. Multilingualism is advantageous for people wanting to participate in trade, globalization and cultural openness. Owing to the ease of access to information facilitated by the Internet, individuals' exposure to multiple languages has become increasingly possible. People who speak several languages are also called polyglots.

An international school is an institution that promotes education in an international environment or framework. Although there is no uniform definition or criteria, international schools are usually characterized by a multinational student body and staff, multilingual instruction, curricula oriented towards global perspectives and subjects, and the promotion of concepts such as world citizenship, pluralism, and intercultural understanding. Many international schools adopt a curriculum from programs and organizations such as International Baccalaureate, Edexcel, Cambridge Assessment International Education, International Primary Curriculum, or Advanced Placement.

Minority (non-Japanese) students can be found throughout the entire Japanese education system. An incomplete list of possible cultural and or language minorities represented in Japanese schools include:

Dual language is a form of education in which students are taught literacy and content in two languages. Most dual language programs in the United States teach in English and Spanish, but programs increasingly use a partner language other than Spanish, such as Arabic, Chinese, French, Hawaiian, Japanese, or Korean. Dual language programs use the partner language for at least half of the instructional day in the elementary years.

An English-medium education system is one that uses English as the primary medium of instruction—particularly where English is not the mother tongue of the students.

Linguistic rights are the human and civil rights concerning the individual and collective right to choose the language or languages for communication in a private or public atmosphere. Other parameters for analyzing linguistic rights include the degree of territoriality, amount of positivity, orientation in terms of assimilation or maintenance, and overtness.

LOTE or Languages Other Than English is the name given to language subjects besides English in Australia, New York City, and other schools. The name evolved from 'heritage language', a term first used to refer to languages other than French and English in Canada. Later modified in relation to Australia to refer to languages other than English. LOTEs have often historically been related to the policy of multiculturalism, and tend to reflect the predominant non-English languages spoken in a school's local area, the idea being to play a part in the maintenance of cultural identities in local communities.

The economics of language is an emerging field of study concerning a range of topics such as the effect of language skills on income and trade, the costs and benefits of language planning options, the preservation of minority languages, etc. It is relevant to analysis of language policy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Education in Niger</span> Overview of education in Niger

Education in Niger, as in other nations in the Sahelian region of Africa, faces challenges due to poverty and poor access to schools. Although education is compulsory between the ages of seven and fifteen, with primary and secondary school leading into optional higher education, Niger has one of the lowest literacy rates in the world. With assistance from external organizations, Niger has been pursuing educational improvement, reforming how schools utilize languages of instruction, and exploring how the system can close gender gaps in retention and learning.


A significant construct in language learning research, identity is defined as "how a person understands his or her relationship to the world, how that relationship is structured across time and space, and how the person understands possibilities for the future". Recognizing language as a social practice, identity highlights how language constructs and is constructed by a variety of relationships. Because of the diverse positions from which language learners can participate in social life, identity is theorized as multiple, subject to change, and a site of struggle.

Translanguaging is a term that can refer to different aspects of multilingualism. It can describe the way bilinguals and multilinguals use their linguistic resources to make sense of and interact with the world around them. It can also refer to a pedagogical approach that utilizes more than one language within a classroom lesson. The term "translanguaging" was coined in the 1980s by Cen Williams in his unpublished thesis titled “An Evaluation of Teaching and Learning Methods in the Context of Bilingual Secondary Education.” Williams used the term to describe the practice of using two languages in the same lesson, which differed from many previous methods of bilingual education that tried to separate languages by class, time, or day. In addition, Vogel and Garcia argued that translanguaging theory posits that rather than possessing two or more autonomous language systems, as previously thought when scholars described bilingual or multilingual speakers, bilinguals and multilingual speakers select and deploy their languages from a unitary linguistic repertoire. However, the dissemination of the term, and of the related concept, gained traction decades later due in part to published research by Ofelia García, among others. In this context, translanguaging is an extension of the concept of languaging, the discursive practices of language speakers, but with the additional feature of using multiple languages, often simultaneously. It is a dynamic process in which multilingual speakers navigate complex social and cognitive demands through strategic employment of multiple languages.

Linguistic capital is a sociolinguistic term coined by French sociologist and philosopher Pierre Bourdieu. Bourdieu describes linguistic capital as a form of cultural capital, and specifically as the accumulation of a single person's linguistic skills that predetermines their position in society as delegated by powerful institutions. Cultural capital, on the other hand, is a conglomeration of knowledge, skills, and other cultural acquisitions, which is enhanced by educational or technical qualifications.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jasone Cenoz</span>

Jasone Cenoz is a professor of education at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU) University of the Basque Country in Donostia-San Sebastian, Spain since 2004. From 2000 to 2004 she was Professor of Applied Linguistics at the University of the Basque Country in Vitoria-Gasteiz. Her research focuses on multilingual education, bilingualism and multilingualism. She is known for her work on the influence of bilingualism on third language acquisition, pedagogical translanguaging, linguistic landscape, minority languages and Content and Language Integrated Learning.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Jackson, Jane (2012). The Routledge handbook of language and intercultural communication. New York: Routledge.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 Pavlenko, Aneta (Fall 2018). "Bilingualism, Gender, and Ideology". International Journal of Bilingualism.
  3. 1 2 3 4 Myles, John (2010). Bourdieu, language and the media. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan.
  4. 1 2 Muslimin, Anis Shakirah Mohd. "Why Asian Countries Are Investing So Heavily In The English Language". Forbes. Retrieved 2020-05-27.
  5. ↑ Vince, Gaia. "The amazing benefits of being bilingual". www.bbc.com. Retrieved 2020-05-27.
  6. ↑ Gunnarsson, Britt-Louise (Fall 2018). "Multilingualism in European Workplaces". Multilingua.
  7. 1 2 Poppick, Susie (2014-06-04). "Want to Boost Your Salary? Try Learning German". Money. Retrieved 2020-05-28.
  8. ↑ Kluger, Jeffrey (2013-07-18). "How the Brain Benefits From Being Bilingual". Time. ISSN   0040-781X . Retrieved 2020-05-28.
  9. 1 2 Boussebaa, Medhi; Brown, Andrew (Fall 2018). "Englishization, Identity Regulation and Imperialism" (PDF). Journal of Organization Studies. 38: 7–29. doi:10.1177/0170840616655494. S2CID   148270845.
  10. ↑ Tweedie, Gregory; Johnson, Robert. "Listening instruction and patient safety: Exploring medical English as a lingua franca (MELF) for nursing education" . Retrieved 6 January 2018.
  11. ↑ Lee, Claire (2014-03-26). "[Eye on English] TOEIC adds to stress for young job seekers". www.koreaherald.com. Retrieved 2020-05-27.
  12. 1 2 3 4 5 Suhanthie, Motha (2014). Race, empire, and English language teaching : creating responsible and ethical anti-racist practice. North Carolina: Teachers College, Columbia University.
  13. 1 2 Crookes, Graham (2013). Critical ELT in action : foundations, promises, praxis. New York: Routledge.
  14. ↑ Young, Holly. "The digital language divide". labs.theguardian.com. Retrieved 2020-05-27.
  15. 1 2 McElhinny, Bonnie (2007). Words, worlds, and material girls : language, gender, globalization. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.
  16. 1 2 Piller, Ingrid; Pavlenko, Aneta (Fall 2018). "Bilingualism and Gender". The Handbook of Bi- Lingualism.
  17. ↑ Birmingham, Lucy (2012-09-17). "Learning Curve: With a Push, Japan's Universities Go Global". Time. ISSN   0040-781X . Retrieved 2020-05-28.
  18. 1 2 Waseda University International Affairs Division (2018). FACTS 2018 Waseda University [PDF File]. Retrieved from https://www.waseda.jp/top/en/assets/uploads/2018/08/FACTS2018.pdf
  19. 1 2 3 Ock, Hyun-ju (2016-09-18). "Korea sends fourth most students abroad". www.koreaherald.com. Retrieved 2020-05-28.
  20. 1 2 3 "Number of International Students in the United States Hits All-Time High". www.iie.org. Retrieved 2020-05-29.
  21. ↑ "U.S. Study Abroad Continues to Increase and Diversify". USA StudyAbroad. 2018-11-09. Retrieved 2020-05-29.
  22. ↑ "DHL: Global Connectedness Index >> globalEDGE: Your source for Global Business Knowledge". globaledge.msu.edu. Retrieved 2020-05-29.
  23. ↑ Ghemawat, Pankaj; Altman, Steven A. (2019-02-06). "The State of Globalization in 2019, and What It Means for Strategists". Harvard Business Review. ISSN   0017-8012 . Retrieved 2020-05-29.
  24. ↑ "Andrew Glass | British Council". www.britishcouncil.or.th. Retrieved 2020-05-29.
  25. ↑ "Tackling languages, inclusion, human mobility and multilingual education". www.unicef.org. Retrieved 2020-05-29.
  26. ↑ Jauregui, Hilary (2020-01-06). "Increasing American Bilingualism: Policies for Evidence-based Word Languages Education" (PDF): 17.{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  27. ↑ Damari, Rebecca Rubin; Rivers, William P.; Brecht, Richard D.; Gardner, Philip; Pulupa, Catherine; Robinson, John (2017). "The Demand for Multilingual Human Capital in the U.S. Labor Market". Foreign Language Annals. 50 (1): 13–37. doi:10.1111/flan.12241. ISSN   1944-9720.
  28. ↑ Israel, Hilda F (2013-03-01). "Language Learning Enhanced by Music and Song" (PDF). Literacy Information and Computer Education Journal. Special 2 (1): 1360–1366. doi: 10.20533/licej.2040.2589.2013.0180 .
  29. ↑ MacDonald, Joan. "How K-Pop And K-Drama Made Learning Korean Cool". Forbes. Retrieved 2020-06-07.
  30. ↑ Spectator, The (2019-04-18). "The growing international influence of K-Pop". Medium. Retrieved 2020-06-07.
  31. ↑ Marinescu, Valentina (2014-09-24). The Global Impact of South Korean Popular Culture: Hallyu Unbound. Lexington Books. ISBN   978-0-7391-9338-9.
  32. ↑ Otmazgin, Nissim; Lyan, Irina (2014-07-03). "Hallyu across the Desert: K-pop Fandom in Israel and Palestine". Cross-Currents: East Asian History and Culture Review. 3 (1): 32–55. doi: 10.1353/ach.2014.0008 . ISSN   2158-9674.
  33. ↑ Stromquist, Nelly P.; Monkman, Karen (2014-03-04). Globalization and Education: Integration and Contestation across Cultures. R&L Education. ISBN   978-1-4758-0529-1.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.