Mycoremediation

Last updated • 8 min readFrom Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia
Pleurotus ostreatus (Oyster mushroom) Pleurotus ostreatus JPG7.jpg
Pleurotus ostreatus (Oyster mushroom)

Mycoremediation (from ancient Greek μύκης (mukēs), meaning "fungus", and the suffix -remedium, in Latin meaning 'restoring balance') is a form of bioremediation in which fungi-based remediation methods are used to decontaminate the environment. [1] Fungi have been proven to be a cheap, effective and environmentally sound way for removing a wide array of contaminants from damaged environments or wastewater. These contaminants include heavy metals, organic pollutants, textile dyes, leather tanning chemicals and wastewater, petroleum fuels, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, pharmaceuticals and personal care products, pesticides and herbicides [2] in land, fresh water, and marine environments.

Contents

The byproducts of the remediation can be valuable materials themselves, such as enzymes (like laccase), [3] edible or medicinal mushrooms, [4] making the remediation process even more profitable. Some fungi are useful in the biodegradation of contaminants in extremely cold or radioactive environments where traditional remediation methods prove too costly or are unusable.

Pollutants

Acid mine drainage from a metallic sulfide mine Acid Mine Drainage from a metallic sulfide mine.jpg
Acid mine drainage from a metallic sulfide mine

Fungi, thanks to their non-specific enzymes, are able to break down many kinds of substances including pharmaceuticals and fragrances that are normally recalcitrant to bacteria degradation, [5] such as paracetamol (also known as acetaminophen). For example, using Mucor hiemalis , [6] the breakdown of products which are toxic in traditional water treatment, such as phenols and pigments of wine distillery wastewater, [7] X-ray contrast agents, and ingredients of personal care products, [8] can be broken down in a non-toxic way.

Mycoremediation is a cheaper method of remediation, and it doesn't usually require expensive equipment. For this reason, it is often used in small scale applications, such as mycofiltration of domestic wastewater, [9] and industrial effluent filtration. [10]

According to a 2015 study, mycoremediation can even help with the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) soil biodegradation. Soils soaked with creosote contain high concentrations of PAH and in order to stop the spread, mycoremediation has proven to be the most successful strategy. [11]

Metals

Pollution from metals is very common, as they are used in many industrial processes such as electroplating, textiles, [12] paint and leather. The wastewater from these industries is often used for agricultural purposes, so besides the immediate damage to the ecosystem it is spilled into, the metals can enter creatures and humans far away through the food chain. Mycoremediation is one of the cheapest, most effective and environmental-friendly solutions to this problem. [13] Many fungi are hyperaccumulators, therefore they are able to concentrate toxins in their fruiting bodies for later removal. This is usually true for populations that have been exposed to contaminants for a long time, and have developed a high tolerance. Hyperaccumulation occurs via biosorption on the cellular surface, where the metals enter the mycelium passively with very little intracellular uptake. [14] A variety of fungi, such as Pleurotus , Aspergillus , Trichoderma has proven to be effective in the removal of lead, [15] [16] cadmium, [16] nickel, [17] [16] chromium, [16] mercury, [18] arsenic, [19] copper, [15] [20] boron, [21] iron and zinc [22] in marine environments, wastewater and on land. [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [21] [22]

Not all the individuals of a species are effective in the same way in the accumulation of toxins. The single individuals are usually selected from an older polluted environment, such as sludge or wastewater, where they had time to adapt to the circumstances, and the selection is carried on in the laboratory[ citation needed ]. A dilution of the water can drastically improve the ability of biosorption of the fungi. [23]

Coprinus comatus (Shaggy ink cap) Shaggy Ink Cap .jpg
Coprinus comatus (Shaggy ink cap)

The capacity of certain fungi to extract metals from the ground also can be useful for bioindicator purposes, and can be a problem when the mushroom is of an edible variety. For example, the shaggy ink cap ( Coprinus comatus ), a common edible mushroom found in the Northern Hemisphere, can be a very good bioindicator of mercury. [24] However, as the shaggy ink cap accumulates mercury in its body, it can be toxic to the consumer. [24]

The capacity of metals uptake of mushroom has also been used to recover precious metals from medium. For example, VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland reported an 80% recovery of gold from electronic waste using mycofiltration techniques. [25]

Organic pollutants

Deepwater Horizon oil spill site with visible oil slicks Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill Aerial Image.jpg
Deepwater Horizon oil spill site with visible oil slicks

Fungi are amongst the primary saprotrophic organisms in an ecosystem, as they are efficient in the decomposition of matter. Wood-decay fungi, especially white rot, secretes extracellular enzymes and acids that break down lignin and cellulose, the two main building blocks of plant fiber. These are long-chain organic (carbon-based) compounds, structurally similar to many organic pollutants. They achieve this using a wide array of enzymes. In the case of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), complex organic compounds with fused, highly stable, polycyclic aromatic rings, fungi are very effective [26] in addition to marine environments. [27] The enzymes involved in this degradation are ligninolytic and include lignin peroxidase, versatile peroxidase, manganese peroxidase, general lipase, laccase and sometimes intracellular enzymes, especially the cytochrome P450. [28] [29]

Other toxins fungi are able to degrade into harmless compounds include petroleum fuels, [30] phenols in wastewater, [31] polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) in contaminated soils using Pleurotus ostreatus , [32] polyurethane in aerobic and anaerobic conditions, [33] such as conditions at the bottom of landfills using two species of the Ecuadorian fungus Pestalotiopsis , [34] and more. [35]

Pleurotus pulmonarius Pleurotus pulmonarius on tree.jpg
Pleurotus pulmonarius

The mechanisms of degradation are not always clear, [36] as the mushroom may be a precursor to subsequent microbial activity rather than individually effective in the removal of pollutants. [37]

Pesticides

Pesticide contamination can be long-term and have a significant impact on decomposition processes and nutrient cycling. [38] Therefore, their degradation can be expensive and difficult. The most commonly used fungi for helping in the degradation of such substances are white rot fungi, which, thanks to their extracellular ligninolytic enzymes like laccase and manganese peroxidase, are able to degrade high quantity of such components. Examples includes the insecticide endosulfan, [39] imazalil, thiophanate methyl, ortho-phenylphenol, diphenylamine, chlorpyrifos [40] in wastewater, and atrazine in clay-loamy soils. [41]

Dyes

Dyes are used in many industries, like paper printing or textile. They are often recalcitrant to degradation and in some cases, like some azo dyes, carcinogenic or otherwise toxic. [42]

The mechanism by which the fungi degrade dyes is via their lignolytic enzymes, especially laccase, therefore white rot mushrooms are the most commonly used.[ citation needed ]

Mycoremediation has proven to be a cheap and effective remediation technology for dyes such as malachite green, nigrosin and basic fuchsin with Aspergillus niger and Phanerochaete chrysosporium [43] and Congo red, a carcinogenic dye recalcitrant to biodegradative processes, [44] direct blue 14 (using Pleurotus ). [45]

Synergy with phytoremediation

Phytoremediation is the use of plant-based technologies to decontaminate an area.

Most land plants can form a symbiotic relationship with fungi which is advantageous for both organisms. This relationship is called mycorrhiza. Researchers found that phytoremediation is enhanced by mycorrhizae. [46] Mycorrhizal fungi's symbiotic relationships with plant roots help with the uptake of nutrients and the plant's ability to resist biotic and abiotic stress factors such as heavy metals bioavailable in the rhizosphere. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) produce proteins that bind heavy metals and thereby decrease their bioavailability. [47] [48] The removal of soil contaminants by mycorrhizal fungi is called mycorrhizoremediation. [49]

Mycorrhizal fungi, especially AMF, can greatly improve the phytoremediation capacity of some plants. This is mostly due to the stress the plants suffer because of the pollutants is greatly reduced in the presence of AMF, so they can grow more and produce more biomass. [50] [48] The fungi also provide more nutrition, especially phosphorus, and promote the overall health of the plants. The mycelium's quick expansion can also greatly extend the rhizosphere influence zone (hyphosphere), providing the plant with access to more nutrients and contaminants. [51] Increasing the rhizosphere overall health also means a rise in the bacteria population, which can also contribute to the bioremediation process. [52]

This relationship has been proven useful with many pollutants, such as Rhizophagus intraradices and Robinia pseudoacacia in lead contaminated soil, [53] Rhizophagus intraradices with Glomus versiforme inoculated into vetiver grass for lead removal, [54] AMF and Calendula officinalis in cadmium and lead contaminated soil, [55] and in general was effective in increasing the plant bioremediation capacity for metals, [56] [57] petroleum fuels, [58] [59] and PAHs. [52] In wetlands AMF greatly promote the biodegradation of organic pollutants like benzene-, methyl tert-butyl ether- and ammonia from groundwater when inoculated into Phragmites australis . [60]

Viability in extreme environments

Antarctic fungi species such as Metschnikowia sp., Cryptococcus gilvescens, Cryptococcus victoriae, Pichia caribbica and Leucosporidium creatinivorum can withstand extreme cold and still provide efficient biodegradation of contaminants. [61] Due to the nature of colder, remote environments like Antarctica, usual methods of contaminant remediation, such as the physical removal of contaminated media, can prove costly. [62] [63] Most species of psychrophilic Antarctic fungi are resistant to the decreased levels of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) production causing reduced energy availability, [64] decreased levels of oxygen due to the low permeability of frozen soil, and nutrient transportation disruption caused by freeze-thaw cycles. [65] These species of fungi are able to assimilate and degrade compounds such as phenols, n-Hexadecane, toluene, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in these harsh conditions. [66] [61] These compounds are found in crude oil and refined petroleum.

Some fungi species, like Rhodotorula taiwanensis, are resistant to the extremely low pH (acidic) and radioactive medium found in radioactive waste and can successfully grow in these conditions, unlike most other organisms. [67] They can also thrive in the presence of high concentrations of mercury and chromium. [67] Fungi such as Rhodotorula taiwanensis can possibly be used in the bioremediation of radioactive waste due to their low pH and radiation resistant properties. [67] Certain species of fungi are able to absorb and retain radionuclides such as 137Cs, 121Sr, 152Eu, 239Pu and 241Am. [68] [10] In fact, cell walls of some species of dead fungi can be used as a filter that can adsorb heavy metals and radionuclides present in industrial effluents, preventing them from being released into the environment. [10]

Fire management

Mycoremediation can even be used for fire management with the encapsulation method. This process consists of using fungal spores coated with agarose in a pellet form, which is introduced to a substrate in the burnt forest, breaking down toxins and stimulating growth. [69]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hydrocarbon</span> Organic compound consisting entirely of hydrogen and carbon

In organic chemistry, a hydrocarbon is an organic compound consisting entirely of hydrogen and carbon. Hydrocarbons are examples of group 14 hydrides. Hydrocarbons are generally colourless and hydrophobic; their odor is usually faint, and may be similar to that of gasoline or lighter fluid. They occur in a diverse range of molecular structures and phases: they can be gases, liquids, low melting solids or polymers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mycorrhiza</span> Fungus-plant symbiotic association

A mycorrhiza is a symbiotic association between a fungus and a plant. The term mycorrhiza refers to the role of the fungus in the plant's rhizosphere, its root system. Mycorrhizae play important roles in plant nutrition, soil biology, and soil chemistry.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bioremediation</span> Process used to treat contaminated media such as water and soil

Bioremediation broadly refers to any process wherein a biological system, living or dead, is employed for removing environmental pollutants from air, water, soil, flue gasses, industrial effluents etc., in natural or artificial settings. The natural ability of organisms to adsorb, accumulate, and degrade common and emerging pollutants has attracted the use of biological resources in treatment of contaminated environment. In comparison to conventional physicochemical treatment methods bioremediation may offer advantages as it aims to be sustainable, eco-friendly, cheap, and scalable.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon</span> Hydrocarbon composed of multiple aromatic rings

A polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) is a class of organic compounds that is composed of multiple aromatic rings. The simplest representative is naphthalene, having two aromatic rings, and the three-ring compounds anthracene and phenanthrene. PAHs are uncharged, non-polar and planar. Many are colorless. Many of them are found in coal and in oil deposits, and are also produced by the incomplete combustion of organic matter—for example, in engines and incinerators or when biomass burns in forest fires.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Phytoremediation</span> Decontamination technique using living plants

Phytoremediation technologies use living plants to clean up soil, air and water contaminated with hazardous contaminants. It is defined as "the use of green plants and the associated microorganisms, along with proper soil amendments and agronomic techniques to either contain, remove or render toxic environmental contaminants harmless". The term is an amalgam of the Greek phyto (plant) and Latin remedium. Although attractive for its cost, phytoremediation has not been demonstrated to redress any significant environmental challenge to the extent that contaminated space has been reclaimed.

Biological augmentation is the addition of archaea or bacterial cultures required to speed up the rate of degradation of a contaminant. Organisms that originate from contaminated areas may already be able to break down waste, but perhaps inefficiently and slowly.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Arbuscular mycorrhiza</span> Symbiotic penetrative association between a fungus and the roots of a vascular plant

An arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM) is a type of mycorrhiza in which the symbiont fungus penetrates the cortical cells of the roots of a vascular plant forming arbuscules. Arbuscular mycorrhiza is a type of endomycorrhiza along with ericoid mycorrhiza and orchid mycorrhiza. They are characterized by the formation of unique tree-like structures, the arbuscules. In addition, globular storage structures called vesicles are often encountered.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Glomeromycota</span> Phylum of fungi

Glomeromycota are one of eight currently recognized divisions within the kingdom Fungi, with approximately 230 described species. Members of the Glomeromycota form arbuscular mycorrhizas (AMs) with the thalli of bryophytes and the roots of vascular land plants. Not all species have been shown to form AMs, and one, Geosiphon pyriformis, is known not to do so. Instead, it forms an endocytobiotic association with Nostoc cyanobacteria. The majority of evidence shows that the Glomeromycota are dependent on land plants for carbon and energy, but there is recent circumstantial evidence that some species may be able to lead an independent existence. The arbuscular mycorrhizal species are terrestrial and widely distributed in soils worldwide where they form symbioses with the roots of the majority of plant species (>80%). They can also be found in wetlands, including salt-marshes, and associated with epiphytic plants.

<i>Rhodotorula</i> Genus of fungi

Rhodotorula is a genus of fungi in the class Microbotryomycetes. Most species are known in their yeast states which produce orange to red colonies when grown on Sabouraud's dextrose agar (SDA). The colour is the result of pigments that the yeast creates to block out certain wavelengths of light (620–750 nm) that would otherwise be damaging to the cell. Hyphal states, formerly placed in the genus Rhodosporidium, give rise to teliospores from which laterally septate basidia emerge, producing sessile basidiospores. Species occur worldwide and can be isolated from air, water, soil, and other substrates.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Phospholipid-derived fatty acids</span> Chemotaxonomy markers of microoorganisms

Phospholipid-derived fatty acids (PLFAs) are widely used in microbial ecology as chemotaxonomic markers of bacteria and other organisms. Phospholipids are the primary lipids composing cellular membranes. Phospholipids can be saponified, which releases the fatty acids contained in their diglyceride tail. Once the phospholipids of an unknown sample are saponified, the composition of the resulting PLFA can be compared to the PLFA of known organisms to determine the identity of the sample organism. PLFA analysis may be combined with other techniques, such as stable isotope probing to determine which microbes are metabolically active in a sample. PLFA analysis was pioneered by D.C. White at the University of Tennessee, in the early to mid 1980s.

Petroleum microbiology is a branch of microbiology that deals with the study of microorganisms that can metabolize or alter crude or refined petroleum products. These microorganisms, also called hydrocarbonoclastic microorganisms, can degrade hydrocarbons and, include a wide distribution of bacteria, methanogenic archaea, and some fungi. Not all hydrocarbonoclasic microbes depend on hydrocarbons to survive, but instead may use petroleum products as alternative carbon and energy sources. Interest in this field is growing due to the increasing use of bioremediation of oil spills.

Bioremediation of petroleum contaminated environments is a process in which the biological pathways within microorganisms or plants are used to degrade or sequester toxic hydrocarbons, heavy metals, and other volatile organic compounds found within fossil fuels. Oil spills happen frequently at varying degrees along with all aspects of the petroleum supply chain, presenting a complex array of issues for both environmental and public health. While traditional cleanup methods such as chemical or manual containment and removal often result in rapid results, bioremediation is less labor-intensive, expensive, and averts chemical or mechanical damage. The efficiency and effectiveness of bioremediation efforts are based on maintaining ideal conditions, such as pH, RED-OX potential, temperature, moisture, oxygen abundance, nutrient availability, soil composition, and pollutant structure, for the desired organism or biological pathway to facilitate reactions. Three main types of bioremediation used for petroleum spills include microbial remediation, phytoremediation, and mycoremediation. Bioremediation has been implemented in various notable oil spills including the 1989 Exxon Valdez incident where the application of fertilizer on affected shoreline increased rates of biodegradation.

<i>In situ</i> bioremediation

Bioremediation is the process of decontaminating polluted sites through the usage of either endogenous or external microorganism. In situ is a term utilized within a variety of fields meaning "on site" and refers to the location of an event. Within the context of bioremediation, in situ indicates that the location of the bioremediation has occurred at the site of contamination without the translocation of the polluted materials. Bioremediation is used to neutralize pollutants including Hydrocarbons, chlorinated compounds, nitrates, toxic metals and other pollutants through a variety of chemical mechanisms. Microorganism used in the process of bioremediation can either be implanted or cultivated within the site through the application of fertilizers and other nutrients. Common polluted sites targeted by bioremediation are groundwater/aquifers and polluted soils. Aquatic ecosystems affected by oil spills have also shown improvement through the application of bioremediation. The most notable cases being the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in 2010 and the Exxon Valdez oil spill in 1989. Two variations of bioremediation exist defined by the location where the process occurs. Ex situ bioremediation occurs at a location separate from the contaminated site and involves the translocation of the contaminated material. In situ occurs within the site of contamination In situ bioremediation can further be categorized by the metabolism occurring, aerobic and anaerobic, and by the level of human involvement.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mycorrhiza helper bacteria</span> Group of organisms

Mycorrhiza helper bacteria (MHB) are a group of organisms that form symbiotic associations with both ectomycorrhiza and arbuscular mycorrhiza. MHBs are diverse and belong to a wide variety of bacterial phyla including both Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria. Some of the most common MHBs observed in studies belong to the phylas Pseudomonas and Streptomyces. MHBs have been seen to have extremely specific interactions with their fungal hosts at times, but this specificity is lost with plants. MHBs enhance mycorrhizal function, growth, nutrient uptake to the fungus and plant, improve soil conductance, aid against certain pathogens, and help promote defense mechanisms. These bacteria are naturally present in the soil, and form these complex interactions with fungi as plant root development starts to take shape. The mechanisms through which these interactions take shape are not well-understood and needs further study.

Gordonia sp. nov. Q8 is a bacterium in the phylum of Actinomycetota. It was discovered in 2017 as one of eighteen new species isolated from the Jiangsu Wei5 oilfield in East China with the potential for bioremediation. Strain Q8 is rod-shaped and gram-positive with dimensions 1.0–4.0 μm × 0.5–1.2 μm and an optimal growth temperature of 40 °C. Phylogenetically, it is most closely related to Gordonia paraffinivorans and Gordonia alkaliphila, both of which are known bioremediators. Q8 was assigned as a novel species based on a <70% ratio of DNA homology with other Gordonia bacteria.

Mycorrhizal amelioration of heavy metals or pollutants is a process by which mycorrhizal fungi in a mutualistic relationship with plants can sequester toxic compounds from the environment, as a form of bioremediation.

Dr. Mohamed Hijri is a biologist who studies arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF). He is a professor of biology and research at the Institut de recherche en biologie végétale at the University of Montreal.

Hydrocarbonoclastic bacteria are a heterogeneous group of prokaryotes which can degrade and utilize hydrocarbon compounds as source of carbon and energy. Despite being present in most of environments around the world, several of these specialized bacteria live in the sea and have been isolated from polluted seawater.

The International Collection of (Vesicular) Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (INVAM) is the largest collection of living arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) and includes Glomeromycotan species from 6 continents. Curators of INVAM acquire, grow, identify, and elucidate the biology, taxonomy, and ecology of a diversity AMF with the mission to expand availability and knowledge of these symbiotic fungi. Culturing AMF presents difficulty as these fungi are obligate biotrophs that must complete their life cycle while in association with their plant hosts, while resting spores outside of the host are vulnerable to predation and degradation. Curators of INVAM have thus developed methods to overcome these challenges to increase the availability of AMF spores. The inception of this living collection of germplasm occurred in the 1980s and it takes the form of fungi growing in association with plant symbionts in the greenhouse, with spores preserved in cold storage within their associated rhizosphere. AMF spores acquired from INVAM have been used extensively in both basic and applied research projects in the fields of ecology, evolutionary biology, agroecology, and in restoration. INVAM is umbrellaed under the Kansas Biological Survey at The University of Kansas, an R1 Research Institution. The Kansas Biological Survey is also home to the well-known organization Monarch Watch. INVAM is currently located within the tallgrass prairie ecoregion, and many collaborators and researchers associated with INVAM study the role of AMF in the mediation of prairie biodiversity. James Bever and Peggy Schultz are the Curator and Director of Operation team, with Elizabeth Koziol and Terra Lubin as Associate Curators.

References

  1. ↑ Kulshreshtha S, Mathur N, Bhatnagar P (April 2014). "Mushroom as a product and their role in mycoremediation". AMB Express. 4 (1): 29. doi: 10.1186/s13568-014-0029-8 . PMC   4052754 . PMID   24949264.
  2. ↑ Deshmukh R, Khardenavis AA, Purohit HJ (September 2016). "Diverse Metabolic Capacities of Fungi for Bioremediation". Indian Journal of Microbiology. 56 (3): 247–64. doi:10.1007/s12088-016-0584-6. PMC   4920763 . PMID   27407289.
  3. ↑ Strong PJ, Burgess JE (2007). "Bioremediation of a wine distillery wastewater using white rot fungi and the subsequent production of laccase". Water Science and Technology. 56 (2): 179–86. doi:10.2166/wst.2007.487. PMID   17849993. S2CID   11776284. Trametes pubescens MB 89 greatly improved the quality of a wastewater known for toxicity towards biological treatment systems, while simultaneously producing an industrially relevant enzyme.
  4. ↑ Kulshreshtha S, Mathur N, Bhatnagar P (1 April 2014). "Mushroom as a product and their role in mycoremediation". AMB Express. 4: 29. doi: 10.1186/s13568-014-0029-8 . PMC   4052754 . PMID   24949264. The cultivation of edible mushroom on agricultural and industrial wastes may thus be a value added process capable of converting these discharges, which are otherwise considered to be wastes, into foods and feeds
  5. ↑ Harms H, Schlosser D, Wick LY (March 2011). "Untapped potential: exploiting fungi in bioremediation of hazardous chemicals". Nature Reviews. Microbiology. 9 (3): 177–92. doi:10.1038/nrmicro2519. PMID   21297669. S2CID   24676340. municipal wastewater contains small concentrations of the ingredients of many consumer products and drugs. Many of these contaminants do not lend themselves to bacterial degradation because of distinctly xenobiotic structures.
  6. ↑ Esterhuizen-Londt M, Schwartz K, Pflugmacher S (October 2016). "Using aquatic fungi for pharmaceutical bioremediation: Uptake of acetaminophen by Mucor hiemalis does not result in an enzymatic oxidative stress response". Fungal Biology. 120 (10): 1249–57. doi:10.1016/j.funbio.2016.07.009. PMID   27647241.
  7. ↑ Strong PJ, Burgess JE (2007). "Bioremediation of a wine distillery wastewater using white rot fungi and the subsequent production of laccase". Water Science and Technology. 56 (2): 179–86. doi:10.2166/wst.2007.487. PMID   17849993. S2CID   11776284. Trametes pubescens MB 89 greatly improved the quality of a wastewater known for toxicity towards biological treatment systems
  8. ↑ Harms H, Schlosser D, Wick LY (March 2011). "Untapped potential: exploiting fungi in bioremediation of hazardous chemicals". Nature Reviews. Microbiology. 9 (3): 177–92. doi:10.1038/nrmicro2519. PMID   21297669. S2CID   24676340. ligninolytic basidiomycetes and mitosporic ascomycetes, including aquatic fungi, are known to degrade EDCs (nonylphenol, bisphenol A and 17α-ethinylestradiol); analgesic, anti-epileptic and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs; X-ray contrast agents; polycyclic musk fragrances; and ingredients of personal care products
  9. ↑ Molla AH, Fakhru'l-Razi A (June 2012). "Mycoremediation--a prospective environmental friendly technique of bioseparation and dewatering of domestic wastewater sludge". Environmental Science and Pollution Research International. 19 (5): 1612–9. Bibcode:2012ESPR...19.1612M. doi:10.1007/s11356-011-0676-0. PMID   22134862. S2CID   23689795. Within 2-3 days of treatment application, encouraging results were achieved in total dry solids (TDS), total suspended solid (TSS), turbidity, chemical oxygen demand (COD), specific resistance to filtration (SRF), and pH due to fungal treatment in recognition of bioseparation and dewaterability of wastewater sludge compared to control.
  10. 1 2 3 Belozerskaya, T.; Aslanidi, K.; Ivanova, A.; Gessler, N.; Egorova, A.; Karpenko, Y.; Olishevskaya, S. (2010). "Characteristics of Extremophylic Fungi from Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant". Current Research, Technology and Education Topics in Applied Microbiology and Microbial Biotechnology: 88–94 – via ResearchGate.
  11. ↑ García-Delgado, Carlos; Alfaro-Barta, Irene; Eymar, Enrique (March 2015). "Combination of biochar amendment and mycoremediation for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons immobilization and biodegradation in creosote-contaminated soil". Journal of Hazardous Materials. 285: 259–266. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2014.12.002. hdl: 10486/700611 . PMID   25506817.
  12. ↑ Bhatia D, Sharma NR, Singh J, Kanwar RS (2017). "Biological methods for textile dye removal from wastewater: A review". Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology. 47 (19): 1836–1876. Bibcode:2017CREST..47.1836B. doi:10.1080/10643389.2017.1393263. S2CID   103499429.
  13. ↑ Joshi PK, Swarup A, Maheshwari S, Kumar R, Singh N (October 2011). "Bioremediation of heavy metals in liquid media through fungi isolated from contaminated sources". Indian Journal of Microbiology. 51 (4): 482–7. doi:10.1007/s12088-011-0110-9. PMC   3209935 . PMID   23024411. Wastewater particularly from electroplating, paint, leather, metal and tanning industries contain enormous amount of heavy metals. Microorganisms including fungi have been reported to exclude heavy metals from wastewater through bioaccumulation and biosorption at low cost and in eco-friendly way.
  14. ↑ Gazem MA, Nazareth S (1 June 2013). "Sorption of lead and copper from an aqueous phase system by marine-derived Aspergillus species". Annals of Microbiology. 63 (2): 503–511. doi: 10.1007/s13213-012-0495-7 . ISSN   1590-4261. S2CID   14253113. The sequestration of the metal occurred mainly by sorption to the cell-surface with very little intracellular uptake.
  15. 1 2 3 Gazem MA, Nazareth S (1 June 2013). "Sorption of lead and copper from an aqueous phase system by marine-derived Aspergillus species". Annals of Microbiology. 63 (2): 503–511. doi: 10.1007/s13213-012-0495-7 . ISSN   1590-4261. S2CID   14253113. Selected cultures displayed a good sorption capacity of 32 - 41 mg Pb2+ and 3.5 - 6.5 mg Cu2+ g-1 dry weight of mycelia
  16. 1 2 3 4 5 Joshi PK, Swarup A, Maheshwari S, Kumar R, Singh N (October 2011). "Bioremediation of heavy metals in liquid media through fungi isolated from contaminated sources". Indian Journal of Microbiology. 51 (4): 482–7. doi:10.1007/s12088-011-0110-9. PMC   3209935 . PMID   23024411.
  17. 1 2 Cecchi G, Roccotiello E, Di Piazza S, Riggi A, Mariotti MG, Zotti M (March 2017). "Assessment of Ni accumulation capability by fungi for a possible approach to remove metals from soils and waters". Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part B. 52 (3): 166–170. Bibcode:2017JESHB..52..166C. doi:10.1080/03601234.2017.1261539. hdl: 11567/857594 . PMID   28121266. S2CID   22294536. This latter [Trichoderma harzianum strain] hyperaccumulates up to 11,000 mg Ni kg-1, suggesting its possible use in a bioremediation protocol able to provide a sustainable reclamation of broad contaminated areas.
  18. 1 2 Kurniati E, Arfarita N, Imai T, Higuchi T, Kanno A, Yamamoto K, Sekine M (June 2014). "Potential bioremediation of mercury-contaminated substrate using filamentous fungi isolated from forest soil". Journal of Environmental Sciences. 26 (6): 1223–31. doi:10.1016/S1001-0742(13)60592-6. PMID   25079829. The strain was able to remove 97.50% and 98.73% mercury from shaken and static systems respectively. A. flavus strain KRP1 seems to have potential use in bioremediation of aqueous substrates containing mercury(II) through a biosorption mechanism.
  19. 1 2 Singh M, Srivastava PK, Verma PC, Kharwar RN, Singh N, Tripathi RD (November 2015). "Soil fungi for mycoremediation of arsenic pollution in agriculture soils". Journal of Applied Microbiology. 119 (5): 1278–90. doi: 10.1111/jam.12948 . PMID   26348882. These fungal strains [Aspergillus oryzae FNBR_L35; Fusarium sp. FNBR_B7, FNBR_LK5 and FNBR_B3; Aspergillus nidulans FNBR_LK1; Rhizomucor variabilis sp. FNBR_B9; and Emericella sp. FNBR_BA5] can be used for As remediation in As-contaminated agricultural soils.
  20. 1 2 Zotti M, Di Piazza S, Roccotiello E, Lucchetti G, Mariotti MG, Marescotti P (December 2014). "Microfungi in highly copper-contaminated soils from an abandoned Fe-Cu sulphide mine: growth responses, tolerance and bioaccumulation". Chemosphere. 117: 471–6. Bibcode:2014Chmsp.117..471Z. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2014.08.057. PMID   25240213.
  21. 1 2 Taştan BE, Çakir DN, Dönmez G (2016). "A new and effective approach to boron removal by using novel boron-specific fungi isolated from boron mining wastewater". Water Science and Technology. 73 (3): 543–9. doi:10.2166/wst.2015.519. PMID   26877036. S2CID   37796594. The maximum boron removal yield by P. crustosum was 45.68% at 33.95 mg l(-1) initial boron concentration in MSM, and was 38.97% at 42.76 mg l(-1) boron for R. mucilaginosa, which seemed to offer an economically feasible method of removing boron from the effluents.
  22. 1 2 Vaseem H, Singh VK, Singh MP (November 2017). "Heavy metal pollution due to coal washery effluent and its decontamination using a macrofungus, Pleurotus ostreatus". Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety. 145: 42–49. Bibcode:2017EcoES.145...42V. doi:10.1016/j.ecoenv.2017.07.001. PMID   28704692. Efficiency of Pleurotus for remediation of heavy metals was found to be highest in the 50% diluted effluent (57.2% Mn, 82.6% Zn, 98.0% Ni, 99.9% Cu, 99.3% Co, 99.1% Cr, 89.2% Fe and 35.6% Pb)
  23. ↑ Vaseem H, Singh VK, Singh MP (November 2017). "Heavy metal pollution due to coal washery effluent and its decontamination using a macrofungus, Pleurotus ostreatus". Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety. 145: 42–49. Bibcode:2017EcoES.145...42V. doi:10.1016/j.ecoenv.2017.07.001. PMID   28704692.
  24. 1 2 Falandysz J (April 2016). "Mercury bio-extraction by fungus Coprinus comatus: a possible bioindicator and mycoremediator of polluted soils?". Environmental Science and Pollution Research International. 23 (8): 7444–51. Bibcode:2016ESPR...23.7444F. doi:10.1007/s11356-015-5971-8. PMC   4846694 . PMID   26705753. Eating them when foraged from the urban places can provide to a consumer Hg at relatively high dose, while unresolved question is absorption rate of Hg compounds contained in ingested mushroom meal.
  25. ↑ Salminen J, Blomberg P, Mäkinen J, Räsänen L (September 2015). "Environmental aspects of metals removal from waters and gold recovery". AIChE Journal. 61 (9): 2739–2748. Bibcode:2015AIChE..61.2739S. doi:10.1002/aic.14917.
  26. ↑ Batista-García RA, Kumar VV, Ariste A, Tovar-Herrera OE, Savary O, Peidro-Guzmán H, et al. (August 2017). "Simple screening protocol for identification of potential mycoremediation tools for the elimination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and phenols from hyperalkalophile industrial effluents". Journal of Environmental Management. 198 (Pt 2): 1–11. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.05.010. PMID   28499155. The levels of adsorption of the phenolic and PAHs were negligible with 99% biodegradation being observed in the case of benzo-α-pyrene, phenol and p-chlorophenol
  27. ↑ Passarini MR, Rodrigues MV, da Silva M, Sette LD (February 2011). "Marine-derived filamentous fungi and their potential application for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon bioremediation". Marine Pollution Bulletin. 62 (2): 364–70. Bibcode:2011MarPB..62..364P. doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2010.10.003. PMID   21040933. The fungus Aspergillus sclerotiorum CBMAI 849 showed the best performance with regard to pyrene (99.7%) and benzo[a]pyrene (76.6%) depletion after 8 and 16 days, respectively. [...] Because these fungi were adapted to the marine environment, the strains that were used in the present study are considered to be attractive targets for the bioremediation of saline environments, such as ocean and marine sediments that are contaminated by PAHs.
  28. ↑ Deshmukh R, Khardenavis AA, Purohit HJ (September 2016). "Diverse Metabolic Capacities of Fungi for Bioremediation". Indian Journal of Microbiology. 56 (3): 247–64. doi:10.1007/s12088-016-0584-6. PMC   4920763 . PMID   27407289. certain fungi possess intracellular networks which constitute the xenome, consisting of cytochrome (CYP) P450 monooxygenases and the glutathione transferases for dealing with diverse range of pollutants.
  29. ↑ Pozdnyakova NN (2012). "Involvement of the ligninolytic system of white-rot and litter-decomposing fungi in the degradation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons". Biotechnology Research International. 2012: 243217. doi: 10.1155/2012/243217 . PMC   3398574 . PMID   22830035. Ligninolytic fungi, such as Phanerochaete chrysosporium, Bjerkandera adusta, and Pleurotus ostreatus, have the capacity of PAH degradation. The enzymes involved in the degradation of PAHs are ligninolytic and include lignin peroxidase, versatile peroxidase, Mn-peroxidase, and laccase.
  30. ↑ Young D, Rice J, Martin R, Lindquist E, Lipzen A, Grigoriev I, Hibbett D (25 June 2015). "Degradation of Bunker C Fuel Oil by White-Rot Fungi in Sawdust Cultures Suggests Potential Applications in Bioremediation". PLOS ONE. 10 (6): e0130381. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1030381Y. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0130381 . PMC   4482389 . PMID   26111162. Averaging across all studied species, 98.1%, 48.6%, and 76.4% of the initial Bunker C C10 alkane, C14 alkane, and phenanthrene, respectively were degraded after 180 days of fungal growth on pine media.
  31. ↑ Batista-García RA, Kumar VV, Ariste A, Tovar-Herrera OE, Savary O, Peidro-Guzmán H, et al. (August 2017). "Simple screening protocol for identification of potential mycoremediation tools for the elimination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and phenols from hyperalkalophile industrial effluents". Journal of Environmental Management. 198 (Pt 2): 1–11. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.05.010. PMID   28499155. When this wastewater was supplemented with 0.1 mM glucose, all of the tested fungi, apart from A. caesiellus, displayed the capacity to remove both the phenolic and PAH compounds
  32. ↑ Stella T, Covino S, Čvančarová M, Filipová A, Petruccioli M, D'Annibale A, Cajthaml T (February 2017). "Bioremediation of long-term PCB-contaminated soil by white-rot fungi". Journal of Hazardous Materials. 324 (Pt B): 701–710. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2016.11.044. PMID   27894756. The best results were obtained with P. ostreatus, which resulted in PCB removals of 18.5, 41.3 and 50.5% from the bulk, top (surface) and rhizosphere, respectively, of dumpsite soils after 12 weeks of treatment
  33. ↑ "Could Plastic-Eating Mushrooms Solve mankind's Plastic Problem?". Sciencemint. 2021-04-14. Archived from the original on 2021-04-14. Retrieved 2021-07-02.
  34. ↑ Russell JR, Huang J, Anand P, Kucera K, Sandoval AG, Dantzler KW, et al. (September 2011). "Biodegradation of polyester polyurethane by endophytic fungi". Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 77 (17): 6076–84. Bibcode:2011ApEnM..77.6076R. doi:10.1128/AEM.00521-11. PMC   3165411 . PMID   21764951.
  35. ↑ Harms H, Schlosser D, Wick LY (March 2011). "Untapped potential: exploiting fungi in bioremediation of hazardous chemicals". Nature Reviews. Microbiology. 9 (3): 177–92. doi:10.1038/nrmicro2519. PMID   21297669. S2CID   24676340. species of the genera Cladophialophora and Exophiala (of the order Chaetothyriales) assimilate toluene. Aspergillus and Penicillium spp. (of the order Eurotiales) degrade aliphatic hydrocarbons, chlorophenols, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAhs), pesticides, synthetic dyes and 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TnT). metabolization of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs) is reported for the genera Cordyceps and Fusarium (of the order hypocreales), as well as for Pseudallescheria spp. (of the order microascales). The mitosporic Acremonium spp. degrade PAhs and Royal Demolition Explosive (RDX), and Graphium spp. degrade methyl-tert-butylether (mTBE). outside of the Pezizomycotina, Phoma spp. degrade PAhs, pesticides and synthetic dyes. The subphylum Saccharomycotina mostly consists of yeasts and includes degraders of n-alkanes, n-alkylbenzenes, crude oil, the endocrine disrupting chemical (EDC) nonylphenol, PAhs and TnT (in the genera Candida, Kluyveromyces, Neurospora, Pichia, Saccharomyces and Yarrowia
  36. ↑ Young D, Rice J, Martin R, Lindquist E, Lipzen A, Grigoriev I, Hibbett D (25 June 2015). "Degradation of Bunker C Fuel Oil by White-Rot Fungi in Sawdust Cultures Suggests Potential Applications in Bioremediation". PLOS ONE. 10 (6): e0130381. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1030381Y. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0130381 . PMC   4482389 . PMID   26111162. The mechanisms by which P. strigosozonata may degrade complex oil compounds remain obscure, but degradation results of the 180-day cultures suggest that diverse white-rot fungi have promise for bioremediation of petroleum fuels.
  37. ↑ Stella T, Covino S, Čvančarová M, Filipová A, Petruccioli M, D'Annibale A, Cajthaml T (February 2017). "Bioremediation of long-term PCB-contaminated soil by white-rot fungi". Journal of Hazardous Materials. 324 (Pt B): 701–710. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2016.11.044. PMID   27894756. P. ostreatus efficiently colonized the soil samples and suppressed other fungal genera. However, the same fungus substantially stimulated bacterial taxa that encompass putative PCB degraders.
  38. ↑ Magan N, Fragoeiro S, Bastos C (December 2010). "Environmental factors and bioremediation of xenobiotics using white rot fungi". Mycobiology. 38 (4): 238–48. doi:10.4489/MYCO.2010.38.4.238. PMC   3741516 . PMID   23956663.
  39. ↑ Rivero A, Niell S, Cesio V, Cerdeiras MP, Heinzen H (October 2012). "Analytical methodology for the study of endosulfan bioremediation under controlled conditions with white rot fungi". Journal of Chromatography B. 907: 168–72. doi:10.1016/j.jchromb.2012.09.010. PMID   23022115. the basidiomycete Bjerkandera adusta was able to degrade 83% of (alpha+beta) endosulfan after 27 days, 6 mg kg(-1) of endosulfan diol were determined; endosulfan ether and endosulfan sulfate were produced below 1 mg kg(-1) (LOQ, limit of quantitation).
  40. ↑ Karas PA, Perruchon C, Exarhou K, Ehaliotis C, Karpouzas DG (February 2011). "Potential for bioremediation of agro-industrial effluents with high loads of pesticides by selected fungi". Biodegradation. 22 (1): 215–28. doi:10.1007/s10532-010-9389-1. PMID   20635121. S2CID   23746146.
  41. ↑ Chan-Cupul W, Heredia-Abarca G, Rodríguez-Vázquez R (2016). "Atrazine degradation by fungal co-culture enzyme extracts under different soil conditions". Journal of Environmental Science and Health. Part. B, Pesticides, Food Contaminants, and Agricultural Wastes. 51 (5): 298–308. Bibcode:2016JESHB..51..298C. doi:10.1080/03601234.2015.1128742. PMID   26830051. S2CID   23973026. This study demonstrated that both the monoculture extracts of the native strain T. maxima and its co-culture with P. carneus can efficiently and quickly degrade atrazine in clay-loam soils.
  42. ↑ Singh Z, Chadha P (2016-08-15). "Textile industry and occupational cancer". Journal of Occupational Medicine and Toxicology. 11: 39. doi: 10.1186/s12995-016-0128-3 . PMC   4986180 . PMID   27532013.
  43. ↑ Rani B, Kumar V, Singh J, Bisht S, Teotia P, Sharma S, Kela R (9 October 2014). "Bioremediation of dyes by fungi isolated from contaminated dye effluent sites for bio-usability". Brazilian Journal of Microbiology. 45 (3): 1055–63. doi:10.1590/s1517-83822014000300039. PMC   4204947 . PMID   25477943. Aspergillus niger recorded maximum decolorization of the dye Basic fuchsin (81.85%) followed by Nigrosin (77.47%), Malachite green (72.77%) and dye mixture (33.08%) under shaking condition. Whereas, P. chrysosporium recorded decolorization to the maximum with the Nigrosin (90.15%) followed by Basic fuchsin (89.8%), Malachite green (83.25%) and mixture (78.4%).
  44. ↑ Bhattacharya S, Das A, G M, K V, J S (October 2011). "Mycoremediation of congo red dye by filamentous fungi". Brazilian Journal of Microbiology. 42 (4): 1526–36. doi:10.1590/s1517-83822011000400040. PMC   3768715 . PMID   24031787. the decolourisation obtained at optimized conditions varied between 29.25- 97.28% at static condition and 82.1- 100% at shaking condition
  45. ↑ Singh MP, Vishwakarma SK, Srivastava AK (2013). "Bioremediation of direct blue 14 and extracellular ligninolytic enzyme production by white rot fungi: Pleurotus spp". BioMed Research International. 2013: 180156. doi: 10.1155/2013/180156 . PMC   3693104 . PMID   23841054.
  46. ↑ Coninx L, Martinova V, Rineau F (2017-01-01), Cuypers A, Vangronsveld J (eds.), "Chapter Four - Mycorrhiza-Assisted Phytoremediation", Advances in Botanical Research, vol. 83, Academic Press, pp. 127–188, doi:10.1016/bs.abr.2016.12.005
  47. ↑ Chen, Hansong; Xiong, Juan; Fang, Linchuan; Han, Fu; Zhao, Xiaolan; Fan, Qiaohui; Tan, Wenfeng (September 2022). "Sequestration of heavy metals in soil aggregates induced by glomalin-related soil protein: A five-year phytoremediation field study". Journal of Hazardous Materials. 437: 129445. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.129445. PMID   35897177. S2CID   249970822.
  48. 1 2 Riaz, Muhammad; Kamran, Muhammad; Fang, Yizeng; Wang, Qianqian; Cao, Huayuan; Yang, Guoling; Deng, Lulu; Wang, Youjuan; Zhou, Yaoyu; Anastopoulos, Ioannis; Wang, Xiurong (2021-01-15). "Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi-induced mitigation of heavy metal phytotoxicity in metal contaminated soils: A critical review". Journal of Hazardous Materials. 402: 123919. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.123919. ISSN   0304-3894. PMID   33254825. S2CID   224927111.
  49. ↑ Khan AG (July 2006). "Mycorrhizoremediation--an enhanced form of phytoremediation". Journal of Zhejiang University. Science. B. 7 (7): 503–14. doi:10.1631/jzus.2006.B0503. PMC   1500877 . PMID   16773723.
  50. ↑ Rabie GH (March 2005). "Role of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in phytoremediation of soil rhizosphere spiked with poly aromatic hydrocarbons". Mycobiology. 33 (1): 41–50. doi:10.4489/MYCO.2005.33.1.041. PMC   3774856 . PMID   24049473. As consequence of the treatment with Am [Arbuscolar mycorrhize], the plants provide a greater sink for the contaminants since they are better able to survive and grow.
  51. ↑ Rajtor M, Piotrowska-Seget Z (November 2016). "Prospects for arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) to assist in phytoremediation of soil hydrocarbon contaminants". Chemosphere. 162: 105–16. Bibcode:2016Chmsp.162..105R. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2016.07.071. PMID   27487095. AMF have been considered to be a tool to enhance phytoremediation, as their mycelium create a widespread underground network that acts as a bridge between plant roots, soil and rhizosphere microorganisms. Abundant extramatrical hyphae extend the rhizosphere thus creating the hyphosphere, which significantly increases the area of a plant's access to nutrients and contaminants.
  52. 1 2 Rabie GH (March 2005). "Role of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in phytoremediation of soil rhizosphere spiked with poly aromatic hydrocarbons". Mycobiology. 33 (1): 41–50. doi:10.4489/MYCO.2005.33.1.041. PMC   3774856 . PMID   24049473. Highly significant positive correlations were shown between of arbuscular formation in root segments (A)) and plant water content, root lipids, peroxidase, catalase polyphenol oxidase and total microbial count in soil rhizosphere as well as PAH dissipation in spiked soil.
  53. ↑ Yang Y, Liang Y, Han X, Chiu TY, Ghosh A, Chen H, Tang M (February 2016). "The roles of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) in phytoremediation and tree-herb interactions in Pb contaminated soil". Scientific Reports. 6: 20469. Bibcode:2016NatSR...620469Y. doi:10.1038/srep20469. PMC   4740888 . PMID   26842958. Non-mycorrhizal legumes were more sensitive to Pb addition than that of mycorrhizal legumes [...] The presence of AMF greatly increased the total biomass of legumes in all treatments
  54. ↑ Bahraminia M, Zarei M, Ronaghi A, Ghasemi-Fasaei R (2016). "Effectiveness of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in phytoremediation of lead- contaminated soil by vetiver grass". International Journal of Phytoremediation. 18 (7): 730–7. Bibcode:2016IJPhy..18..730B. doi:10.1080/15226514.2015.1131242. PMID   26709443. S2CID   24134740. With mycorrhizal inoculation and increasing Pb levels, Pb uptake of shoot and root increased compared to those of NM control
  55. ↑ Tabrizi L, Mohammadi S, Delshad M, Moteshare Zadeh B (2015). "Effect of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi On Yield and Phytoremediation Performance of Pot Marigold (Calendula officinalis L.) Under Heavy Metals Stress". International Journal of Phytoremediation. 17 (12): 1244–52. Bibcode:2015IJPhy..17.1244T. doi:10.1080/15226514.2015.1045131. PMID   26237494. S2CID   38602727. However, mycorrhizal fungi alleviated these impacts by improving plant growth and yield. Pot marigold concentrated high amounts of Pb and especially Cd in its roots and shoots; mycorrhizal plants had a greater accumulation of these metals, so that those under 80 mg/kg Cd soil(-1) accumulated 833.3 and 1585.8 mg Cd in their shoots and roots, respectively.
  56. ↑ Yang Y, Liang Y, Ghosh A, Song Y, Chen H, Tang M (September 2015). "Assessment of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi status and heavy metal accumulation characteristics of tree species in a lead-zinc mine area: potential applications for phytoremediation". Environmental Science and Pollution Research International. 22 (17): 13179–93. Bibcode:2015ESPR...2213179Y. doi:10.1007/s11356-015-4521-8. PMID   25929455. S2CID   24501499. Redundancy analysis (RDA) showed that the efficiency of phytoremediation was enhanced by AM symbioses, and soil pH, Pb, Zn, and Cd levels were the main factors influencing the HM accumulation characteristics of plants.
  57. ↑ Li SP, Bi YL, Kong WP, Wang J, Yu HY (November 2013). "[Effects of the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi on environmental phytoremediation in coal mine areas]". Huan Jing Ke Xue = Huanjing Kexue. 34 (11): 4455–9. PMID   24455959. Population of microorganism increased obviously. All the above results show that their ecological effects are significantly improved. AM would promote rhizosphere soil that will help the sustainability of ecological systems in mining area.
  58. ↑ Xun F, Xie B, Liu S, Guo C (January 2015). "Effect of plant growth-promoting bacteria (PGPR) and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) inoculation on oats in saline-alkali soil contaminated by petroleum to enhance phytoremediation". Environmental Science and Pollution Research International. 22 (1): 598–608. Bibcode:2015ESPR...22..598X. doi:10.1007/s11356-014-3396-4. PMID   25091168. S2CID   22961287. the degradation rate of total petroleum hydrocarbon during treatment with PGPR and AMF in moderately contaminated soil reached a maximum of 49.73%
  59. ↑ Hernández-Ortega HA, Alarcón A, Ferrera-Cerrato R, Zavaleta-Mancera HA, López-Delgado HA, Mendoza-López MR (March 2012). "Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi on growth, nutrient status, and total antioxidant activity of Melilotus albus during phytoremediation of a diesel-contaminated substrate". Journal of Environmental Management. 95 Suppl: S319-24. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2011.02.015. PMID   21420227. AMF-plants significantly contributed in higher degradation of total petroleum hydrocarbons when compared to non-AMF-plants.
  60. ↑ Fester T (January 2013). "Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in a wetland constructed for benzene-, methyl tert-butyl ether- and ammonia-contaminated groundwater bioremediation". Microbial Biotechnology. 6 (1): 80–4. doi:10.1111/j.1751-7915.2012.00357.x. PMC   3815387 . PMID   22846140.
  61. 1 2 Martorell MM, Ruberto LA, de Castellanos LI, Mac Cormack WP (2019), Tiquia-Arashiro SM, Grube M (eds.), "Bioremediation Abilities of Antarctic Fungi", Fungi in Extreme Environments: Ecological Role and Biotechnological Significance, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 517–534, doi:10.1007/978-3-030-19030-9_26, ISBN   978-3-030-19030-9, S2CID   199887141
  62. ↑ Filler DM, Van Stempvoort DR, Leigh MB (2009), Margesin R (ed.), "Remediation of Frozen Ground Contaminated with Petroleum Hydrocarbons: Feasibility and Limits", Permafrost Soils, Soil Biology, vol. 16, Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer, pp. 279–301, doi:10.1007/978-3-540-69371-0_19, ISBN   978-3-540-69371-0
  63. ↑ Ossai IC, Ahmed A, Hassan A, Hamid FS (2020-02-01). "Remediation of soil and water contaminated with petroleum hydrocarbon: A review". Environmental Technology & Innovation. 17: 100526. Bibcode:2020EnvTI..1700526O. doi:10.1016/j.eti.2019.100526. S2CID   210275209.
  64. ↑ Dunn, Jacob; Grider, Michael H. (2021), "Physiology, Adenosine Triphosphate", StatPearls, Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing, PMID   31985968 , retrieved 2021-03-26
  65. ↑ Si-Zhong Y, Hui-Jun J, Zhi W, Rui-Xia HE, Yan-Jun JI, Xiu-Mei LI, Shao-Peng YU (2009-06-01). "Bioremediation of Oil Spills in Cold Environments: A Review". Pedosphere. 19 (3): 371–381. doi:10.1016/S1002-0160(09)60128-4.
  66. ↑ Blasi B, Poyntner C, Rudavsky T, Prenafeta-Boldú FX, Hoog S, Tafer H, Sterflinger K (March 2016). "Pathogenic Yet Environmentally Friendly? Black Fungal Candidates for Bioremediation of Pollutants". Geomicrobiology Journal. 33 (3–4): 308–317. Bibcode:2016GmbJ...33..308B. doi:10.1080/01490451.2015.1052118. PMC   4786828 . PMID   27019541.
  67. 1 2 3 Tkavc R, Matrosova VY, Grichenko OE, Gostinčar C, Volpe RP, Klimenkova P, et al. (2018). "Prospects for Fungal Bioremediation of Acidic Radioactive Waste Sites: Characterization and Genome Sequence of Rhodotorula taiwanensis MD1149". Frontiers in Microbiology. 8: 2528. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2017.02528 . PMC   5766836 . PMID   29375494.
  68. ↑ Zhdanova, N.N.; Redchits, T.I.; Zheltonozhsky, V.A.; Sadovnikov, L.V.; Gerzabek, M.H.; Olsson, S.; Strebl, F.; Mück, K. (January 2003). "Accumulation of radionuclides from radioactive substrata by some micromycetes". Journal of Environmental Radioactivity. 67 (2): 119–130. doi:10.1016/S0265-931X(02)00164-9. PMID   12660044.
  69. ↑ Rhodes, Christopher J. (January 2014). "Mycoremediation (bioremediation with fungi) – growing mushrooms to clean the earth". Chemical Speciation & Bioavailability. 26 (3): 196–198. Bibcode:2014CSBio..26..196R. doi: 10.3184/095422914X14047407349335 . ISSN   0954-2299. S2CID   97081821.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.