Mycotypha microspora

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Mycotypha microspora
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Mucoromycota
Order: Mucorales
Family: Mycotyphaceae
Genus: Mycotypha
Species:
M. microspora
Binomial name
Mycotypha microspora
Synonyms
  • Microtypha microspora(Fenner) Monte, Oddo & Tonolo

Mycotypha microspora, also known as Microtypha microspora, [1] is a filamentous fungus in the division Zygomycota. [2] It was discovered in a Citrus aurantium peel in 1932 by E. Aline Fenner, who proposed a new genus Mycotypha to accommodate it. [2] [3] Mycotypha africana, which is another species in the genus Mycotypha, is closely related to M. microspora. [3] The fungus has subsequently been isolated from both outdoor and indoor settings around the world, and is typically found in soil and dung. [4] [5] The species rarely causes infections in humans, but has recently been involved in the clinical manifestation of the life-threatening disease mucormycosis. [6]

Morphology and growth conditions

Mycotypha microspora is a filamentous fungus whose genus name is derived from the cattail-like appearance of its fructifications and tiny spores. [2] It has a dense granular protoplasm and is composed of several hyphae and vacuoles. [2] The structure is highly branched, with mycelium of varying diameters. [2] It consists of two kinds of unispored sporangia: an inner layer containing globose spores and an outer layer with obovoid or cylindrical spores. [7]

During the growth period, the fruiting body is coenocytic. [2] After the fungus gradually matures, septation occurs at approximately the same time as sporulation. [2] Mycotypha microspora colonies grow rapidly and abundantly on nutrient-rich media, such as carrot agar and potato dextrose. [8] However, no growth occurs on low pH media. [2] M. microspora is mesophilic, with optimal growth of cultures occurring at a temperature of 35 °C (95 °F), with a threshold of 10 °C (50 °F) under which growth is inhibited. [8] The fructifications typically form at night and thus respond unfavourably to light. [2]

Geographical distribution and habitat

Other species present in the genus Mycotypha include M. africana, [3] and M. indica. [9] These species are distributed worldwide and have been geographically collected from countries including Japan, [10] [11] India, Finland, Zimbabwe, and certain states in the U.S. such as Arizona, Washington D.C., Kansas, California, and Iowa. [12] These fungi are predominantly found in soil and faeces. [2] M. microspora was initially extracted from a Citrus aurantium peel in the Netherlands, where it was found to be pathogenic. [5] Additionally, it has reportedly been found in decaying wood and a hospital washroom in Germany. [5] One specific case noted its presence in stool samples from a child with leukaemia. [4]

Mycotypha microspora is an intestinal symbiont of the silverfish species Thermobia domestica . [13] [14] [15] Deposited with the feces of the silverfish, the fungus was found to be responsible for arrestment and aggregation behaviour in Thermobia domestica and in the related silverfish Ctenolepisma longicaudata , but not in Lepisma saccharina . [13] [14] Thermobia domestica does not seem to sense the presence of M. microspora itself, but rather the fungus‘ metabolites (such as glucose) of its enzymatic digestion of cellulose. [16]

Pathogenicity

Only a few reported cases exist where the species has been found to cause an infection in humans. [17] M. microspora has recently been implicated as a causative factor in the pathogenesis of gastrointestinal mucormycosis in humans, which is a rare disease caused by fungi of the order Mucorales. [6] Mucormycosis is a potentially fatal disease characterised by tissue necrosis that results from aggressive infiltration of blood vessels and subsequent formation of blood clots. [6] The disease develops due to the binding of spore coating (CotH) proteins from the fungus to glucose regulator protein 78 (GRP78) host receptors in endothelial cells. [17] Tissue necrosis blocks the entry of antifungals to infected sites, therefore preventing clearance and promoting circulation of the disease. [18] Mucormycosis is highly susceptible in immunocompromised patients, and can mainly infect the body at pulmonary, rhinocerebral, cutaneous, and gastrointestinal sites. [1] [17] Factors that put an individual at risk for manifestation of the disease include corticosteroid use, diabetes, and ongoing neutropenia. [17]

Treatment

Given that the disease is rare, there is a lack of experimental findings assessing the efficacy of specific treatment regimens for mucormycosis. [17] The most reliable antifungal agent against mucormycosis is amphotericin, however the use of this in combination with voriconazole led to acute kidney injury upon admission of a 41-year-old man who was dually infected by Aspergillus fumigatus and M. microspora. [17] In order to prevent permanent kidney damage, therapy was switched to administering the broad spectrum antifungal isavuconazole for 15 days, however this also led to complications in the patient. [17] Ultimately, his gastrointestinal Mycotypha infection was treated with a combination of posaconazole and micafungin, which proved to be more effective than monotherapy, and he was eventually cured of the disease by surgically removing a part of his stomach in order to manage the gastrointestinal bleeding. [17] [19] [20] This rare case provides some insight into potential treatment protocols for M. microspora and A. fumigatus infections in humans, however, further research that focuses on infections caused solely by M. microspora is essential in formulating a specific treatment regimen against this species.

CotH proteins are found in fungi of the order Mucorales, and blocking their function weakens their ability to invade endothelial cells, and reduces mucormycosis presentation in mice. [21] [22]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Microsporidia</span> Phylum of fungi

Microsporidia are a group of spore-forming unicellular parasites. These spores contain an extrusion apparatus that has a coiled polar tube ending in an anchoring disc at the apical part of the spore. They were once considered protozoans or protists, but are now known to be fungi, or a sister group to fungi. These fungal microbes are obligate eukaryotic parasites that use a unique mechanism to infect host cells. They have recently been discovered in a 2017 Cornell study to infect Coleoptera on a large scale. So far, about 1500 of the probably more than one million species are named. Microsporidia are restricted to animal hosts, and all major groups of animals host microsporidia. Most infect insects, but they are also responsible for common diseases of crustaceans and fish. The named species of microsporidia usually infect one host species or a group of closely related taxa. Approximately 10 percent of the species are parasites of vertebrates —several species, most of which are opportunistic, can infect humans, in whom they can cause microsporidiosis.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Zygomycosis</span> Medical condition

Zygomycosis is the broadest term to refer to infections caused by bread mold fungi of the zygomycota phylum. However, because zygomycota has been identified as polyphyletic, and is not included in modern fungal classification systems, the diseases that zygomycosis can refer to are better called by their specific names: mucormycosis, phycomycosis and basidiobolomycosis. These rare yet serious and potentially life-threatening fungal infections usually affect the face or oropharyngeal cavity. Zygomycosis type infections are most often caused by common fungi found in soil and decaying vegetation. While most individuals are exposed to the fungi on a regular basis, those with immune disorders (immunocompromised) are more prone to fungal infection. These types of infections are also common after natural disasters, such as tornadoes or earthquakes, where people have open wounds that have become filled with soil or vegetative matter.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fungal infection</span> Disease caused by fungi to animals or humans

Fungal infection, also known as mycosis, is a disease caused by fungi. Different types are traditionally divided according to the part of the body affected; superficial, subcutaneous, and systemic. Superficial fungal infections include common tinea of the skin, such as tinea of the body, groin, hands, feet and beard, and yeast infections such as pityriasis versicolor. Subcutaneous types include eumycetoma and chromoblastomycosis, which generally affect tissues in and beneath the skin. Systemic fungal infections are more serious and include cryptococcosis, histoplasmosis, pneumocystis pneumonia, aspergillosis and mucormycosis. Signs and symptoms range widely. There is usually a rash with superficial infection. Fungal infection within the skin or under the skin may present with a lump and skin changes. Pneumonia-like symptoms or meningitis may occur with a deeper or systemic infection.

<i>Enterobacter</i> Genus of bacteria

Enterobacter is a genus of common Gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped, non-spore-forming bacteria of the family Enterobacteriaceae. Cultures are found in soil, water, sewage, feces and gut environments. It is the type genus of the order Enterobacterales. Several strains of these bacteria are pathogenic and cause opportunistic infections in immunocompromised hosts and in those who are on mechanical ventilation. The urinary and respiratory tracts are the most common sites of infection. The genus Enterobacter is a member of the coliform group of bacteria. It does not belong to the fecal coliforms group of bacteria, unlike Escherichia coli, because it is incapable of growth at 44.5 °C in the presence of bile salts. Some of them show quorum sensing properties.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Firebrat</span> Insect similar to a silverfish

The firebrat is a small insect, in the order Zygentoma.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dermatophytosis</span> Fungal infection of the skin

Dermatophytosis, also known as ringworm, is a fungal infection of the skin (Dermatomycosis). Typically it results in a red, itchy, scaly, circular rash. Hair loss may occur in the area affected. Symptoms begin four to fourteen days after exposure. Multiple areas can be affected at a given time.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mucorales</span> Order of fungi

The Mucorales is the largest and best-studied order of zygomycete fungi. Members of this order are sometimes called pin molds. The term mucormycosis is now preferred for infections caused by molds belonging to the order Mucorales.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Zygentoma</span> Order of insects

Zygentoma are an order in the class Insecta, and consist of about 550 known species. The Zygentoma include the so-called silverfish or fishmoths, and the firebrats. A conspicuous feature of the order are the three long caudal filaments. The two lateral filaments are cerci, and the medial one is an epiproct or appendix dorsalis. In this they resemble the Archaeognatha, although the cerci of Zygentoma, unlike in the latter order, are nearly as long as the epiproct.

<i>Apophysomyces</i> Genus of fungi

Apophysomyces is a genus of filamentous fungi that are commonly found in soil and decaying vegetation. Species normally grow in tropical to subtropical regions.

<i>Mucor racemosus</i> Species of fungus

Mucor racemosus is a rapidly growing, weedy mould belonging to the division Mucoromycota. It is one of the earliest fungi to be grown in pure culture and was first isolated in 1886. It has a worldwide distribution and colonizes many habitats such as vegetational products, soil and houses. The fungus is mostly known for its ability to exhibit both filamentous and yeast-like morphologies, often referred to as dimorphism. Stark differences are seen in both forms and conditions of the environment heavily affect the phases of the M. racemosus. Like many fungi, it also reproduces both sexually and asexually. The dimorphic capacity of this species has been proposed as an important factor in its pathogenicity and has enhanced the industrial importance. This species is considered an opportunistic pathogen, generally limited to immunocompromised individuals. It also been associated with allergy and inflammations of facial sinuses. Its association with allergy has made it a common fungus used in allergen medical testing. Industrial use of the fungus is in the production of enzymes and the manufacture of certain dairy foods.

<i>Rhizopus microsporus</i> Species of fungus

Rhizopus microsporus is a fungal plant pathogen infecting maize, sunflower, and rice.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mucormycosis</span> Fungal infection

Mucormycosis, also known as black fungus, is a serious fungal infection that comes under fulminant fungal sinusitis, usually in people who are immunocompromised. It is curable only when diagnosed early. Symptoms depend on where in the body the infection occurs. It most commonly infects the nose, sinuses, eyes and brain resulting in a runny nose, one-sided facial swelling and pain, headache, fever, blurred vision, bulging or displacement of the eye (proptosis), and tissue death. Other forms of disease may infect the lungs, stomach and intestines, and skin. The fatality rate is about 54%.

Saksenaea vasiformis is an infectious fungus associated with cutaneous or subcutaneous lesions following trauma. It causes opportunistic infections as the entry of the fungus is through open spaces of cutaneous barrier ranging in severity from mild to severe or fatal. It lives in soils worldwide, but is considered as a rare human pathogen since only 38 cases were reported as of 2012. Saksenaea vasiformis usually fails to sporulate on the routine culture media, creating a challenge for early diagnosis, which is essential for a good prognosis. Infections are usually treated using a combination of amphotericin B and surgery. Saksenaea vasiformis is one of the few fungi known to cause necrotizing fasciitis or "flesh-eating disease".

<i>Apophysomyces variabilis</i> Species of fungus

Apophysomyces variabilis is an emerging fungal pathogen that can cause serious and sometimes fatal infection in humans. This fungus is a soil-dwelling saprobe with tropical to subtropical distribution. It is a zygomycete that causes mucormycosis, an infection in humans brought about by fungi in the order Mucorales. Infectious cases have been reported globally in locations including the Americas, Southeast Asia, India, and Australia. Apophysomyces variabilis infections are not transmissible from person to person.

<i>Lichtheimia corymbifera</i> Species of fungus

Lichtheimia corymbifera is a thermophilic fungus in the phylum Zygomycota. It normally lives as a saprotrophic mold, but can also be an opportunistic pathogen known to cause pulmonary, CNS, rhinocerebral, or cutaneous infections in animals and humans with impaired immunity.

Cunninghamella bertholletiae is a species of zygomycetous fungi in the order Mucorales. It is found globally, with increased prevalence in Mediterranean and subtropical climates. It typically grows as a saprotroph and is found in a wide variety of substrates, including soil, fruits, vegetables, nuts, crops, and human and animal waste. Although infections are still rare, C. betholletiae is emerging as an opportunistic human pathogen, predominantly in immunocompromised people, leukemia patients, and people with uncontrolled diabetes. Cunninghamella bertholletiae infections are often highly invasive, and can be more difficult to treat with antifungal drugs than infections with other species of the Mucorales, making prompt and accurate recognition and diagnosis of mycoses caused by this fungus an important medical concern.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mycobiome</span> The fungal community in and on an organism

The mycobiome, mycobiota, or fungal microbiome, is the fungal community in and on an organism.

<i>Cunninghamella echinulata</i> Species of fungus

Cunninghamella echinulata is a fungal species in the genus Cunninghamella. It is an asexually reproducing fungus and a mesophile, preferring intermediate temperature ranges. C. echinulata is a common air contaminant, and is currently of interest to the biotechnology industry due to its ability to synthesize γ-linolenic acid as well as its capacity to bioconcentrate metals. This species is a soil saprotroph that forms rhizoids, preferring soils enriched in nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. It has been reported occasionally an agent of mucormycosis following the inhalation of fungal spores. Czapek's agar is a suitable growth medium for the propagation of C. echinulata.

<i>Ctenolepisma longicaudatum</i> Species of insect

Ctenolepisma longicaudatum, generally known as the gray silverfish, long-tailed silverfish or paper silverfish, is a species of Zygentoma in the family Lepismatidae. It was described by the German entomologist Karl Leopold Escherich in 1905 based on specimens collected in South Africa, but is found worldwide as synanthrope in human housings.

Microascus manginii is a filamentous fungal species in the genus Microascus. It produces both sexual (teleomorph) and asexual (anamorph) reproductive stages known as M. manginii and Scopulariopsis candida, respectively. Several synonyms appear in the literature because of taxonomic revisions and re-isolation of the species by different researchers. M. manginii is saprotrophic and commonly inhabits soil, indoor environments and decaying plant material. It is distinguishable from closely related species by its light colored and heart-shaped ascospores used for sexual reproduction. Scopulariopsis candida has been identified as the cause of some invasive infections, often in immunocompromised hosts, but is not considered a common human pathogen. There is concern about amphotericin B resistance in S. candida.

References

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  11. ↑ Mikawa, T (1975). "Materials for the fungus flora of Japan (18)". Trans. Mycol. Soc. Japan. 16: 146–148.
  12. ↑ Benny, Gerald; Benjamin, R. K. (1976). "Observations on Thamnidiaceae (Mucorales). II. Chaetocladium, Cokeromyces, Mycotypha, and Phascolomyces". Aliso. 8 (4): 391–424. doi: 10.5642/aliso.19760804.05 . ISSN   2327-2929.
  13. 1 2 Woodbury, Nathan; Gries, Gerhard (2013a). "Firebrats, Thermobia domestica, aggregate in response to the microbes Enterobacter cloacae and Mycotypha microspora". Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata. 147 (2): 154–159. doi:10.1111/eea.12054. S2CID   83503591.
  14. 1 2 Woodbury, Nathan; Gries, Gerhard (2013b). "Fungal symbiont of firebrats (Thysanura) induces arrestment behaviour of firebrats and giant silverfish but not common silverfish". Canadian Entomologist. 145 (5): 543–546. doi:10.4039/tce.2013.35. S2CID   87068303.
  15. ↑ Woodbury, Nathan; Moore, Margo; Gries, Gerhard (2013). "Horizontal transmission of the microbial symbionts Enterobacter cloacae and Mycotypha microspora to their firebrat host". Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata. 147 (2): 160–166. doi:10.1111/eea.12057. S2CID   84773735.
  16. ↑ Woodbury, Nathan; Gries, Gerhard (2013c). "How firebrats (Thysanura: Lepismatidae) detect and nutritionally benefit from their microbial symbionts Enterobacter cloacae and Mycotypha microspora". Environmental Entomology. 42 (5): 860–867. doi: 10.1603/EN13104 . PMID   24331598.
  17. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Trachuk, Polina; Szymczak, Wendy A.; Muscarella, Peter; Sarwar, Uzma N. (2018-09-02). "A Case of Invasive Gastrointestinal Mycotypha Infection in a Patient with Neutropenia". Case Reports in Infectious Diseases. 2018: 5864175. doi: 10.1155/2018/5864175 . ISSN   2090-6625. PMC   6139221 . PMID   30245896.
  18. ↑ Mendoza, L.; Vilela, R.; Voelz, K.; Ibrahim, A. S.; Voigt, K.; Lee, S. C. (2014-11-06). "Human Fungal Pathogens of Mucorales and Entomophthorales". Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine. 5 (4): a019562. doi: 10.1101/cshperspect.a019562 . ISSN   2157-1422. PMC   4382724 . PMID   25377138.
  19. ↑ Bini, R; Addeo, A; Maganuco, L; Fontana, D; Viora, T; Leli, R (2014). "The role of surgery in a case of diffuse mucormycosis with haematemesis and gastric necrosis". The Annals of the Royal College of Surgeons of England. 96 (5): e31–e33. doi:10.1308/003588414x13946184901687. ISSN   0035-8843. PMC   4473966 . PMID   24992411.
  20. ↑ Kirkpatrick, W. R.; Perea, S.; Coco, B. J.; Patterson, T. F. (2002-08-01). "Efficacy of Caspofungin Alone and in Combination with Voriconazole in a Guinea Pig Model of Invasive Aspergillosis". Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 46 (8): 2564–2568. doi:10.1128/aac.46.8.2564-2568.2002. ISSN   0066-4804. PMC   127374 . PMID   12121933.
  21. ↑ Baldin, Clara; Ibrahim, Ashraf S. (2017-08-03). "Molecular mechanisms of mucormycosis—The bitter and the sweet". PLOS Pathogens. 13 (8): e1006408. doi: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1006408 . ISSN   1553-7374. PMC   5542377 . PMID   28771587.
  22. ↑ Chibucos, Marcus C.; Soliman, Sameh; Gebremariam, Teclegiorgis; Lee, Hongkyu; Daugherty, Sean; Orvis, Joshua; Shetty, Amol C.; Crabtree, Jonathan; Hazen, Tracy H.; Etienne, Kizee A.; Kumari, Priti (2016-07-22). "An integrated genomic and transcriptomic survey of mucormycosis-causing fungi". Nature Communications. 7 (1): 12218. Bibcode:2016NatCo...712218C. doi: 10.1038/ncomms12218 . ISSN   2041-1723. PMC   4961843 . PMID   27447865.
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