National Flood Insurance Program

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The National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) is a program created by the Congress of the United States in 1968 through the National Flood Insurance Act of 1968 (P.L. 90-448). The NFIP has two purposes: to share the risk of flood losses through flood insurance and to reduce flood damages by restricting floodplain development. The program enables property owners in participating communities to purchase insurance protection, administered by the government, against losses from flooding, and requires flood insurance for all loans or lines of credit that are secured by existing buildings, manufactured homes, or buildings under construction, that are located in the Special Flood Hazard Area in a community that participates in the NFIP. U.S. Congress limits the availability of National Flood Insurance to communities that adopt adequate land use and control measures with effective enforcement provisions to reduce flood damages by restricting development in areas exposed to flooding.

Contents

Flood insurance was generally provided by private insurers beginning in 1895, but after the Great Mississippi Flood of 1927, most private insurers concluded that flood risk was uninsurable at a price that consumers could afford given the catastrophic nature of flooding, as well as difficulties in creating accurate risk assessments for policy pricing and risks of adverse selection. [1]

The NFIP is managed and administered by the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) through the Federal Insurance and Mitigation Administration (FIMA). [2] The program is designed to provide an insurance alternative to disaster assistance to meet the escalating costs of repairing damage to buildings and their contents caused by floods. [3] As of August 2017, the program insured about 5 million homes (down from about 5.5 million homes in April 2010), the majority of which are in Texas and Florida. [4] [5] The cost of the insurance program was fully covered by its premiums until the end of 2004, but it has had to steadily borrow funds since, primarily due to Hurricane Katrina and Hurricane Sandy, accumulating $25 billion of debt by August 2017. [4] [6] In October 2017, Congress cancelled $16 billion of NFIP debt, making it possible for the program to pay claims. The NFIP owes $20.525 billion to the U.S. as of December 2020. [7]

Floodplain definition

1997 Red River Flood in Grand Forks, North Dakota, was a 100-year flood. RedRiverGrandForks1997.jpg
1997 Red River Flood in Grand Forks, North Dakota, was a 100-year flood.
The carrying capacity of a floodway must be preserved so that the 100-year flood level does not increase by more than one foot. Sketch of floodplain floodway and flood fringe.svg
The carrying capacity of a floodway must be preserved so that the 100-year flood level does not increase by more than one foot.

The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) defines the floodplain as the area that would be flooded by a base flood, [8] which is "the flood which has a one percent chance of being equaled or exceeded in any given year". In this sense, a base flood is synonymous with a 100-year flood and a floodplain is synonymous with a special flood hazard area . This base flood "is used in the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) to indicate the minimum level of flooding to be used by a community in its floodplain management regulations." [9] FEMA explains regulatory floodplains in some places including hills as "critical determinations are made by evaluating your community’s rainfall and river flow data, topography, wind velocity, tidal surge, flood control measures, building development (existing and planned) and community maps." [10]

Scientists and engineers use statistical analysis of streamflow data to determine the likelihood of flood elevations. [11] Theoretically a 100-year flood has a 1 percent chance (1/100 = 0.01 or 1 percent) of occurring in any given year and a 500-year flood has as a 0.2 percent chance (1/500 = 0.002 or 0.2 percent) of occurring in any given year. [12] However, these expected flood elevations actually occur more or less often than expected. [13]

44 CFR § 9.4 defines parts of the floodplain as follows:

Implementation

Participation in the NFIP is based on an agreement between local communities and the federal government that states that if a community will adopt and enforce a floodplain management ordinance to reduce future flood risks to new construction in Special Flood Hazard Areas (SFHA), the federal government will make flood insurance available within the community as a financial protection against flood losses. The SFHAs and other risk premium zones applicable to each participating community are depicted on Flood Insurance Rate Maps (FIRMs). The Mitigation Division within FEMA manages the NFIP and oversees the floodplain management and mapping components of the Program. [14]

The intent was to reduce future flood damage through community floodplain management ordinances and provide protection for property owners against potential losses through an insurance mechanism that requires a premium to be paid for the protection. In 2003, the GAO found that repetitive-loss properties cost the program about $200 million annually. [15] Congress originally intended that operating expenses and flood insurance claims be paid for through the premiums collected for flood insurance policies. [16] NFIP borrows from the U.S. Treasury for times when losses are heavy, and these loans are paid back with interest.

Between 1978 and 2014, the U.S. federal government paid more than $51 billion in claims under the National Flood Insurance Program. [17]

From 2006, the NFIP has been directed by its Senior Executive, David Maurstad. A former Lieutenant Governor of Nebraska, he also serves as the Deputy Associate Administrator for FEMA's Federal Insurance and Mitigation (FIMA) division. [18]

Amendments

The program was first amended by the Flood Disaster Protection Act of 1973, which made the purchase of flood insurance mandatory for the protection of property within SFHAs. In 1982, the Act was amended by the Coastal Barrier Resources Act (CBRA). The CBRA enacted a set of maps depicting the John H. Chafee Coastal Barrier Resources System (CBRS) in which federal flood insurance is unavailable for new or significantly improved structures. The National Flood Insurance Reform Act of 1994 codified the Community Rating System (an incentive program that encourages communities to exceed the minimal federal requirements for development within floodplains) within the NFIP. The program was further amended by the Flood Insurance Reform Act of 2004, with the goal of reducing "losses to properties for which repetitive flood insurance claim payments have been made." [19]

The Biggert–Waters Flood Insurance Reform Act of 2012 (Biggert-Waters) modified the NFIP. At the conclusion of 2011, as Congress passed Biggert-Waters, the NFIP cumulative debt was over $17 billion. [20] A core principle of Biggert-Waters was to change the NFIP premiums to match actuarial risk-based premiums that better reflected the expected losses and real risk of flooding. These changes included removing discounts to many policies which were being sold below actual actuarial risk targets and eliminating "grandfathering" of older rates. [20] [21]

In March 2014, President Obama signed the Homeowner Flood Insurance Affordability Act of 2013. The bill changed the process used to alter subsidized premiums and reinstated grandfathering of lower rates; effectively delaying the increases in flood insurance premiums to obtain risk-based premiums under Biggert-Waters and spreading the cost of the lost premiums over all of the remaining policy holders. [20] [22] [23]

The National Flood Insurance Program was $24 billion in debt at the beginning of 2014 as a result of Hurricanes Katrina, Rita and Sandy. The passage of the HFIAA described above has concerned insurance and environmental observers that the delay in implementation of actuarial rates will leave taxpayers exposed to additional losses. [21]

Floodplain status determination

Letter of Map Amendment

Insufficient map topographic detail or accuracy can result in the unwarranted determination of Special Flood Hazard Area (SFHA). An application for a Letter of Map Amendment (LOMA) uses an Elevation Certificate (prepared by a Registered Land Surveyor or Registered Professional Engineer) to ask FEMA to remove the flood insurance requirement on individual properties. [24]

Online Letter of map change

FEMA's website "Change a Flood Zone Designation – Online Letter of Map Change" says homeowners and other interested parties may submit an Online Letter of Map Change (LOMC). FEMA says this can be used for property that was incorrectly included in a flood zone or if the addition of fill has elevated the property above the flood zone. Information on the property's location, legal description, and use of fill are required for FEMA to determine if the property is located in a flood zone. FEMA might request additional information. [25]

Letter of Map Revision

For multiple properties or a larger area, an application for a Letter of Map Revision [26] can be submitted when the landscape topography is different from that shown on the floodplain boundary and/or flood heights shown on the FIRM and the Flood Insurance Study. A Letter of Map Revision based on Fill (LOMR-F) is used when landscape topography is altered by humans, usually to increase the land elevation and remove land from the floodplain. A Conditional Letter of Map Revision (CLOMR) and Conditional Letter of Map Revision Based on Fill (CLOMR-F) are strongly advised as a mechanism to obtain FEMA feedback on the project before site changes are made, especially in light of the increasing attention on the nexus between the NFIP and the Endangered Species Act. [27] 44 C.F.R. § 65.6(10) says "A revision of flood plain delineations based on topographic changes must demonstrate that any topographic changes have not resulted in a floodway encroachment."

Proposed encroachments

FEMA says that justifiable encroachment within the floodplain might include "construction or modification of a bridge, culvert, levee, or similar measure". [28] The NFIP prohibits communities to issue variances "within any designated regulatory floodway if any increase in flood levels during the base flood discharge would result". [29] However, a community may request FEMA's prior approval for a justifiable encroachment that would increase the base flood level. This community request must include seven required submittals such as a request for conditional approval of map change, an evaluation of alternatives, a request for revision of base flood elevation determination, and a request for floodway revision. [30] All requests for revision of base flood elevations must include supporting data with "all the information FEMA needs to review and evaluate the request. This may involve the requestor’s performing new hydrologic and hydraulic analysis and delineation of new flood plain boundaries and floodways, as necessary." [31] Details of the required supporting data are listed in 44 C.F.R. § 65.7.

Outdated flood maps

Computer models overlay current hydraulic analysis on community images. FEMA chance of flooding over 30 year period.jpg
Computer models overlay current hydraulic analysis on community images.

The U.S. Geological Survey says increased runoff resulting from urban growth generally increases flood hazards to communities and that flood hazard maps based on data before urban growth may no longer be accurate. [32] : 4  The U.S. Geological Survey gives the example that construction encroaching into the floodplain narrows the floodplain width thereby increasing the resistance to flow. Consequently, the water is at a higher stage as it flows past the construction causing backwater to flood a larger area upstream. [32] : 2  FEMA's computer model image shown here "represents the percent chance of flooding at least one time during a 30-year period for a given cell, or location, within the mapped floodplain". [33]

Updating flood maps

NFIP regulation "Requirement to submit new technical data" says "A community’s base flood elevations may increase or decrease resulting from physical changes affecting flooding conditions. As soon as practicable, but not later than six months after the date such information becomes available, a community shall notify the Administrator of the changes by submitting technical or scientific data in accordance with this part. Such a submission is necessary so that upon confirmation of those physical changes affecting flooding conditions, risk premium rates and flood plain management requirements will be based upon current data." [34] FEMA requires "Copies of the input and output data from the original and revised hydraulic analyses shall be submitted" with the hydraulic analysis supporting revisions to flood maps. [35] A 2015 FEMA website identifies that the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) Hydrologic Engineering Center's River Analysis System (HEC-RAS) computer program has been adopted for the preparation of studies and restudies for the NFIP. [36]

Land use restrictions in floodplains

A 2008 flood in Cedar Rapids, Iowa, exceeded the 500-year flood level and damaged public buildings. FEMA downtown Cedar Rapids Iowa flood 2008.jpg
A 2008 flood in Cedar Rapids, Iowa, exceeded the 500-year flood level and damaged public buildings.

Findings

The U.S. Congress finds annual flood losses are "increasing at an alarming rate" and forms of Federal assistance "are often determining factors in the utilization of land and the location and construction of public and of private industrial, commercial, and residential facilities". The purpose for such Federal assistance is frustrated where Federal assistance is exposed to flood risks. [37] A U.S. District Court finds that FEMA determinations of which properties are within the regulatory floodplain affects the location of development:

However, just as the transportation agency in NWF v. Coleman controlled the placement of the highway and interchanges, FEMA designates the boundaries of the floodplains on flood maps. Both of these actions affect the location of development. Whether or not FEMA funds the NFIP, in whole or in part, is immaterial because it is undisputed that FEMA is the federal agency charged with administering the NFIP and that is sufficient to qualify as an "agency action." In neither the present case nor NWF v. Coleman does the action agency authorize, permit, or carry out the actual development that causes the harm to the species' habitat; however, in both cases, development is "reasonably certain to occur" as a result of the agency's action. [38] : 1176 

U.S. Codes

The U.S. Code (USC) codification of the Public Law where Congress established the NFIP [39] in the section "Congressional findings and declaration of purpose" includes:

It is the further purpose of this chapter to (1) encourage State and local governments to make appropriate land use adjustments to constrict the development of land which is exposed to flood damage and minimize damage caused by flood losses, (2) guide the development of proposed future construction, where practicable, away from locations which are threatened by flood hazards

National Flood Insurance is limited to communities that adopted adequate land use and control measures with effective enforcement provisions consistent with these purposes. [40] The USC section "Additional Congressional findings and declaration of purpose" says "property acquired or constructed with grants or other Federal assistance may be exposed to risk of loss through floods, thus frustrating the purpose for which such assistance was extended". [41] This USC further says "The purpose of this Act, therefore, is to ... require States or local communities, as a condition of future Federal financial assistance, to participate in the flood insurance program and to adopt adequate flood plan ordinances with effective enforcement provisions consistent with Federal standards to reduce or avoid future flood losses". [42] The specific prohibition is in the USC section "Prohibition against Federal approval of financial assistance" that says "No Federal officer or agency shall approve any financial assistance for acquisition or construction purposes on and after July 1, 1975, for use in any area that has been identified by the Administrator as an area having special flood hazards unless the community in which such area is situated is then participating in the national flood insurance program." [43]

Code of Federal Regulations

FEMA created a regulation that identifies the minimum flood plain management criteria for communities [44] including the following:

The Code of Federal Regulation (CFR) "Suspension of community eligibility" says communities that do not adequately enforce flood plain management regulations meeting the minimum requirements shall be placed on probation. Failure to correct the violation will result in the community losing eligibility for the NFIP. [45]

Optional stricter standards

Buoyant forces during floods can cause underground storage tanks to float out of the ground. Underground Storage Tank floated out of ground by flood.jpg
Buoyant forces during floods can cause underground storage tanks to float out of the ground.
When flood water enters sewers, the sewage gets released to the environment. Combined Stormwater Sewage Overflow in Roswell Georgia September 2009.jpg
When flood water enters sewers, the sewage gets released to the environment.
Flood water carried oil from a pipeline break into the floodplain beyond normal stream level. Koch pipeline spill 1994 Texas.png
Flood water carried oil from a pipeline break into the floodplain beyond normal stream level.
Flood water making bridge impassable P5med.jpg
Flood water making bridge impassable

The NFIP encourages communities to adopt floodplain management standards more restrictive than the NFIP minimum standards. [46] Communities must consider the additional measures specified in 44 C.F.R. § 60.22. [47] Some states and communities enforce a more protective "Regulatory Floodway" by limiting the cumulative increase in water surface elevation to a half-foot or tenth of a foot instead of the NFIP minimum standard increase of one foot. [48]

This 44 C.F.R. § 60.22 says community flood plain management regulations should permit only development in flood-prone areas that is appropriate with the probability of flood damage. [49] Flooding can damage underground storage tanks (USTs) resulting in leaks of petroleum that contaminate soil, surface water, and groundwater. USTs may even float out of the ground during floods. [50]

This 44 C.F.R. § 60.22 says community flood plain management regulations should prohibit public utilities to be installed in flood prone areas unless it is essential to be located there. [51] Leakage from on-site sewage systems cause contamination problems during floods. [52] Sanitary sewer overflows and combined sewer overflows also release sewage contaminates into flood water. [53] The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency advises "Avoid contact with flood water due to potentially elevated levels of contamination associated with raw sewage and other hazardous or toxic substances that may be in the flood water." [54]

This 44 C.F.R. § 60.22 says community flood plain management regulations should divert development to areas safe from flooding to prevent environmentally incompatible flood plain uses. [55] Ruptures of crude oil pipelines result in crude oil contamination of floodplains. [56] Oil spills create numerous environmental harms. Releases of gasoline, oil, or natural gas during floods also create fire hazards. [57]

This 44 C.F.R. § 60.22 says community flood plain management regulations should provide access requirements so that people do not become isolated by flood water. [58] The Illinois Supreme Court found:

Even if plaintiff were to successfully build the two proposed houses in the floodway at an elevation which would not flood, defendant points out, the homes would still be surrounded by moving water during the 100-year floods. Emergency vehicles would not have access to the homes, and the residents could find themselves stranded without food, clean water, or electricity. [59]

Loose propane tanks exploded during a flood, causing business to burn down. FEMA - 587 - Photograph by FEMA News Photo taken on 05-06-2000 in Missouri.jpg
Loose propane tanks exploded during a flood, causing business to burn down.

Safety guidance for propane tanks in floods says propane tanks in floodplains need to be secured to prevent them from floating off during flooding. Propane tanks floating in floods break the connecting piping releasing the gas. [60] Leaking propane tanks create fire hazards during floods. [61]

A court finds that local governments might have immunity for negligent emergency response activities because in an emergency there may not be time to determine the best course of action. However, there may not be grounds for immunity for pre-emergency actions where negligence results in flooding. [62]

In 2004 the Association of State Floodplain Managers stated "Most local governments have simply assumed that the federal floodplain management approaches embody a satisfactory standard of care, perhaps not realizing that they actually induce additional flooding and damage." [63] : 2  In 2000, the Association of State Floodplain Managers recommended a "no adverse impact" goal to prevent one property owner from adversely impacting the properties of others. [63] : 1 

The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) identifies themselves as the Federal government's largest water resources development and management agency. USACE says they provide information, technical services, planning guidance, and planning assistance to guide the development of floodplains. [64] USACE says their regulatory program after 1968 evolved to balance the national concerns for both the protection and utilization of important resources by public interest review. [65] The 33 C.F.R. 320.4(l)(2) states:

In accordance with the requirements of Executive Order 11988, district engineers, as part of their public interest review, should avoid to the extent practicable, long and short term significant adverse impacts associated with the occupancy and modification of floodplains, as well as the direct and indirect support of floodplain development whenever there is a practicable alternative. For those activities which in the public interest must occur in or impact upon floodplains, the district engineer shall ensure, to the maximum extent practicable, that the impacts of potential flooding on human health, safety, and welfare are minimized, the risks of flood losses are minimized, and, whenever practicable the natural and beneficial values served by floodplains are restored and preserved.

FEMA shall consult with Federal, State, and local agencies

U.S. Congress requires FEMA to consult with other departments and agencies of the Federal Government, and with interstate, State, and local agencies responsible for flood control in order to make certain that those agencies' programs are consistent with the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP). [66] For example, a U.S. District Court ordered FEMA to consult with the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) on FEMA's mapping regulations and FEMA's revisions of flood maps to determine whether they jeopardize the continued existence of the Puget Sound chinook salmon: [38] : 1177 

This "shall consult" language not only gives FEMA discretion to consult, but appears to require FEMA to consult with other agencies, such as NMFS, to ensure that the NFIP is implemented in a manner that is "mutually consistent" with NMFS's programs. [38] : 1172–1173 

Criticisms

Prior to the program, property losses resulting from flood damage were largely the responsibility of individual property owners, although some losses were sometimes mitigated through provisions for disaster relief aid. Today, owners of property in flood plains frequently receive disaster aid and payment for insured losses, which in many ways negates the original intent of the NFIP. Consequently, these policy decisions have escalated losses stemming from floods in recent years, both in terms of property and life. [67]

Moreover, certain provisions within the NFIP increase the likelihood that flood-prone properties will be occupied by the people least likely to be in a position to recover from flood disasters, which further increases demand for aid. This is an example of adverse selection. Some factors contributing to increased demand for aid are:[ citation needed ]

Some critics want the NFIP restricted to primary residences, excluding secondary vacation homes and investment properties.

According to critics of the program, the government's subsidized insurance plan "encouraged building, and rebuilding, in vulnerable coastal areas and floodplains." [68] Stephen Ellis, of the group Taxpayers for Common Sense, points to "properties that flooded 17 or 18 times that were still covered under the federal insurance program" without premiums going up. [68] Critics say this program is underperforming because it is starved for funding compared to disaster response and recovery, and the process of applying for a buyout is unreasonably slow. [69]

Another criticism is that FEMA does not administer all policies, instead outsourcing many policies to private insurance companies. When a disaster occurs, FEMA makes payments to those private insurance companies to offset their costs. However, there is little oversight and few rules as to how the money should be distributed. As a consequence, private insurers have been known to use FEMA payments to hire attorneys that fight policyholders in court. One law firm is estimated to have received US$29M from FEMA payments to fight Hurricane Sandy claims. [70]

Flood risk management and climate change

Flooded residential neighborhood during the August 2016 Louisiana floods in southern Louisiana Aerial view Louisiana flooding August 2016 USGS.jpg
Flooded residential neighborhood during the August 2016 Louisiana floods in southern Louisiana

President Barack Obama, on January 30, 2015, issued Executive Order 13690 requiring Flood Risk Management to anticipate flooding increases over time due to the effects of climate change. [71]

During the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference, just prior to the signing of the Paris Agreement, on December 9, 2015, Reforming the National Flood Insurance Program was presented to members of Congress by Marsh & McLennan CEO Peter Zaffino, urging policymakers to enact reforms. [72] [73]

A peer review study found climate change since 1900 may have increased the probability of extreme precipitation events like the August 2016 flooding in south Louisiana. [74]

President Donald Trump, on August 15, 2017, issued Executive Order 13807 Section 6 of which revokes President Obama's Executive Order 13690. [75]

In January 2021, a petition was filed by the Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) and the Association of State Floodplain Managers requesting updates informed by climate change to the NFIP. In October 2021, FEMA issued a public request for information to upgrade the NFIP. [76]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Floodplain</span> Land adjacent to a water body which is flooded during periods of high water

A floodplain or flood plain or bottomlands is an area of land adjacent to a river. Floodplains stretch from the banks of a river channel to the base of the enclosing valley, and experience flooding during periods of high discharge. The soils usually consist of clays, silts, sands, and gravels deposited during floods.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Federal Emergency Management Agency</span> United States disaster response agency

The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) is an agency of the United States Department of Homeland Security (DHS), initially created under President Jimmy Carter by Presidential Reorganization Plan No. 3 of 1978 and implemented by two Executive Orders on April 1, 1979. The agency's primary purpose is to coordinate the response to a disaster that has occurred in the United States and that overwhelms the resources of local and state authorities. The governor of the state in which the disaster occurs must declare a state of emergency and formally request from the President that FEMA and the federal government respond to the disaster. The only exception to the state's gubernatorial declaration requirement occurs when an emergency or disaster takes place on federal property or to a federal asset—for example, the 1995 bombing of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, or the Space Shuttle Columbia in the 2003 return-flight disaster.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Seismic risk</span> Likelihood of damage to a building or system from an earthquake

Seismic risk or earthquake risk is the potential impact on the built environment and on people's well-being due to future earthquakes. Seismic risk has been defined, for most management purposes, as the potential economic, social and environmental consequences of hazardous events that may occur in a specified period of time. A building located in a region of high seismic hazard is at lower risk if it is built to sound seismic engineering principles. On the other hand, a building located in a region with a history of minor seismicity, in a brick building located on fill subject to liquefaction can be as high or higher risk.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Emergency management</span> Dealing with all humanitarian aspects of emergencies

Emergency management is a science and a system charged with creating the framework within which communities reduce vulnerability to hazards and cope with disasters. Emergency management, despite its name, does not actually focus on the management of emergencies; emergency management or disaster management can be understood as minor events with limited impacts and are managed through the day-to-day functions of a community. Instead, emergency management focuses on the management of disasters, which are events that produce more impacts than a community can handle on its own. The management of disasters tends to require some combination of activity from individuals and households, organizations, local, and/or higher levels of government. Although many different terminologies exist globally, the activities of emergency management can be generally categorized into preparedness, response, mitigation, and recovery, although other terms such as disaster risk reduction and prevention are also common. The outcome of emergency management is to prevent disasters and where this is not possible, to reduce their harmful impacts.

Flood insurance is the specific insurance coverage issued against property loss from flooding. To determine risk factors for specific properties, insurers will often refer to topographical maps that denote lowlands, floodplains and other areas that are susceptible to flooding.

Butch Kinerney is Chief of Communications for the Federal Insurance and Mitigation Administration of the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) and an expert in risk and crisis communications. He served as acting press secretary for FEMA in 2005–2006, rising to the position immediately following landfall of Hurricane Katrina in 2005. During Katrina and the ongoing recovery in the Gulf Coast, he was quoted more than 30,000 times in the press, from Katrina's first landfall in Florida throughout the tumultuous fallout from FEMA's response efforts in Louisiana and Mississippi.

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Hazus is a geographic information system-based natural hazard analysis tool developed and freely distributed by the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA).

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Disaster risk reduction aims to make disasters less likely to happen. The approach, also called DRR or disaster risk management, also aims to make disasters less damaging when they do occur. DRR aims to make communities stronger and better prepared to handle disasters. In technical terms, it aims to make them more resilient or less vulnerable. When DRR is successful, it makes communities less the vulnerable because it mitigates the effects of disasters. This means DRR can make risky events fewer and less severe. Climate change can increase climate hazards. So development efforts often consider DRR and climate change adaptation together.

A flood insurance rate map (FIRM) is an official map of a community within the United States that displays the floodplains, more explicitly special hazard areas and risk premium zones, as delineated by the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). The term is used mainly in the United States but similar maps exist in many other countries, such as Australia.

David Ingolf Maurstad is an American politician and government official who was the 36th lieutenant governor of Nebraska from 1999 to 2001. He was appointed Regional Director at Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) Region 8 in 2001.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Flood management</span> Methods for reducing detrimental effects of flood waters

Flood management describes methods used to reduce or prevent the detrimental effects of flood waters. Flooding can be caused by a mix of both natural processes, such as extreme weather upstream, and human changes to waterbodies and runoff.

A flood opening or flood vent is an orifice in an enclosed structure intended to allow the free passage of water between the interior and exterior.

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Homeowner Flood Insurance Affordability Act of 2014</span> U.S. Law

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Homeowner Flood Insurance Affordability Act of 2013</span> U.S. law

The Homeowner Flood Insurance Affordability Act of 2013 is a bill that would reduce some of the reforms made to the federal flood insurance program that were passed two years prior. The bill would reduce federal flood insurance premium rates for some properties that are sold, were uninsured as of July 2012, or where coverage lapsed as a result of the policyholder no longer being required to maintain coverage.

The combination of topographic and climatic factors in the Tulsa, Oklahoma area have frequently caused major flash flooding, especially near streams that normally drain the area. The city was founded atop a bluff on the Arkansas River. Thus, elevation protected most of the inhabitants and their possessions from damage when the river flooded. However, by the turn of the 20th century the population growth had moved closer to the river, and the flatlands west of the Arkansas had begun to develop as well. The floods typically caused widespread property damage and sometimes death. By the 1920s, seasonal floods of the Arkansas began to cause serious damage and loss of life. Since its founding, city leaders had responded to such events by simply rebuilding and replacing the property that had been destroyed in situ. Not until 1970 did the city government begin developing strategies to mitigate floods or at least minimize property damage and prevent loss of life. This article describes some of the more notable floods in Tulsa, then the mitigation and control strategies that evolved from them.

The effects of climate change on extreme weather events is requiring the insurance industry in the United States to recalculate risk assessments for various insurance policies. From 1980 to 2005, private and federal government insurers in the United States paid $320 billion in constant 2005 dollars in claims due to weather-related losses while the total amount paid in claims annually generally increased, and 88% of all property insurance losses in the United States from 1980 to 2005 were weather-related. Annual insured natural catastrophe losses in the United States grew 10-fold in inflation-adjusted terms from $49 billion in total from 1959 to 1988 to $98 billion in total from 1989 to 1998, while the ratio of premium revenue to natural catastrophe losses fell six-fold from 1971 to 1999 and natural catastrophe losses were the primary factor in 10% of the approximately 700 U.S. insurance company insolvencies from 1969 to 1999 and possibly a contributing factor in 53%.

References

PD-icon.svg This article incorporates public domain material from judicial opinions or other documents created by the federal judiciary of the United States.

PD-icon.svg This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the U.S. Government Publishing Office .

  1. ↑ Horn & Webel 2023, p. 10.
  2. ↑ "Introduction to the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP)" (PDF). fas.org. November 19, 2021. p. 1. Retrieved 4 February 2022. The NFIP is managed by the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), through its subcomponent the Federal Insurance and Mitigation Administration (FIMA).
  3. ↑ Federal Emergency Management Agency (March 1986). "A Unified National Program for Floodplain Management" (PDF). Retrieved 2014-11-08.
  4. 1 2 Witkowski, Rachel; Scism, Leslie (2017-08-26). "Hurricane Harvey Threatens Largest Flood Insurer: The Government". Wall Street Journal . Retrieved 2017-10-28.
  5. ↑ Holladay JS, Schwartz JA. (2010). Flooding the Market: The Distributional Consequences of the NFIP. Institute for Policy Integrity.
  6. ↑ "How government policy exacerbates hurricanes like Harvey". The Economist. 2 September 2017. Retrieved 2017-09-06.
  7. ↑ "National Flood Insurance Program Borrowing Authority" (PDF). fas.org. Federation of American Scientists. p. 3. Retrieved 2 February 2022.
  8. ↑ 44 C.F.R. § 9.4
  9. ↑ 44 CFR § 59.1
  10. ↑ "Why You Need Flood Insurance, Risk Assessments". FEMA. Retrieved April 23, 2019.
  11. ↑ "National Streamflow Information Program". pubs.usgs.gov. USGS. Retrieved 25 April 2019.
  12. ↑ Dalrymple, Tate. "Manual of Hydrology: Part 3. Flood-Flow Techniques" (PDF). pubs.usgs.gov. USGS. Retrieved February 2, 2022.
  13. ↑ Holmes, Robert R. Jr.; Dinicola, Karen. "100-Year Flood–It's All About Chance" (PDF). pubs.usgs.gov. USGS. Retrieved January 15, 2019.
  14. ↑ Fears, Darryl (October 1, 2021). "The price of living near the shore is already high. It's about to go through the roof". The Washington Post. Retrieved 2 February 2022.
  15. ↑ U.S. Government Accountability Office. (2003). Challenges Facing the National Flood Insurance Program
  16. ↑ Wright, James M., The Nation's Response to Flood Disasters: A Historical Account. 1 Apr 2000.
  17. ↑ "Loss Dollars Paid by Calendar Year - FEMA.gov". www.fema.gov. Retrieved 25 April 2019.
  18. ↑ "Officers & Leadership David I. Maurstad". fema.gov. FEMA. Retrieved 5 February 2022.
  19. ↑ "Laws and Regulations". fema.gov. FEMA . Retrieved 4 February 2022.
  20. 1 2 3 National Research Council of the National Academies (2015). Affordability of National Flood Insurance Program Premiums Report 1. National Academies Press. ISBN   9780309371254 . Retrieved 2015-08-20.
  21. 1 2 Uhlenbrock, Kristan (31 January 2014). "Despite Hazard of Sea Level Rise, Senate Halts Flood Insurance Reforms". ThinkProgress. Retrieved 31 January 2014.
  22. ↑ Ferraro, Thomas (30 January 2014). "U.S. Senate passes bill to delay hikes in flood insurance rates". Reuters. Retrieved 31 January 2014.
  23. ↑ "S. 1926 – Summary". United States Congress. 31 January 2014. Retrieved 31 January 2014.
  24. ↑ "Letter of Map Amendment (LOMA)". www.fema.gov. FEMA. Retrieved 27 February 2018.
  25. ↑ "Change a Flood Zone Designation – Online Letter of Map Change". fema.gov. FEMA. November 30, 2018. Retrieved January 15, 2019.
  26. ↑ "Letter of Map Revision". www.fema.gov. FEMA.
  27. ↑ "National Flood Insurance Program & the Endangered Species Act". www.fema.gov. FEMA.
  28. ↑ 44 C.F.R. § 72.1
  29. ↑ 44 C.F.R. § 60.6(a)(1)
  30. ↑ 44 C.F.R. § 65.12(a)
  31. ↑ 44 C.F.R. § 65.6(a)(1)
  32. 1 2 Konrad, Christopher P. (November 2003). "Effects of Urban Development on Floods" (PDF). pubs.usgs.gov. U.S. Geological Survey. Retrieved February 10, 2019.
  33. ↑ "Guidance for Flood Risk Analysis and Mapping, Flood Depth and Analysis Grids" (PDF). FEMA. February 2018. Retrieved February 10, 2019.
  34. ↑ 44 C.F.R. § 65.3
  35. ↑ 44 CFR § 65.6(a)(8)
  36. ↑ "Floodplain Modeling Manual: Hydrologic Engineering Center-River Analysis System Procedures for HEC-2 Modelers". FEMA. August 18, 2015. Retrieved April 25, 2019.
  37. ↑ 42 U.S.C.   § 4002
  38. 1 2 3 National Wildlife Federation v. FEMA, 345F. Supp. 2d1151 (W.D. Wash.2004).
  39. ↑ 42 U.S.C. § 4001(e)
  40. ↑ 42 U.S.C. § 4022(a)(1) and 42 U.S.C. § 4102(c)
  41. ↑ 42 U.S.C. § 4002(a)(3)
  42. ↑ 42 U.S.C. § 4002(b)(3)
  43. ↑ 42 U.S.C. § 4106(a)
  44. ↑ 44 CFR § 60.3
  45. ↑ 44 C.F.R. § 59.24
  46. ↑ 44 C.F.R. § 60.1(d)
  47. ↑ 44 C.F.R. § 60.21
  48. ↑ "Managing Floodplain Development Through The National Flood Insurance Program" (PDF). www.fema.gov. FEMA. 1998. pp. 94–95. Retrieved January 26, 2019.
  49. ↑ 44 C.F.R. § 60.22(a)(1)
  50. ↑ "Underground Storage Tank Flood Guide" (PDF). www.epa.gov. EPA. November 2010. Retrieved January 29, 2019.
  51. ↑ 44 C.F.R. § 60.22(a)(2)
  52. ↑ "Septic Systems - What to Do after the Flood". www.epa.gov. EPA. July 12, 2017. Retrieved January 31, 2019.
  53. ↑ "Combined Stormwater/Sewage Overflow, Roswell, GA, Sept. 2009". www.usgs.gov. USGS. Retrieved January 31, 2019.
  54. ↑ "Flooding". www.epa.gov. EPA. October 29, 2018. Retrieved January 31, 2019.
  55. ↑ 44 C.F.R. § 60.22(c)(2)
  56. ↑ Douglas, Elizabeth (2015). "Yellowstone Oil Spills Expose Threat to Pipelines Under Rivers Nationwide". insideclimatenews.org. Retrieved January 27, 2019.
  57. ↑ "San Jacinto River Spill". incidentnews.noaa.gov. NOAA. 1994. Retrieved January 27, 2019.
  58. ↑ 44 C.F.R. § 60.22(c)(7),(8)
  59. ↑ Beverly Bank v. Illinois Dept. of Transp., 579N.E.2d815, 822(Ill.1991).
  60. ↑ "Propane, LP Gas Tanks and Floods - How to Prepare". www.propane101.com. 2011. Retrieved January 29, 2019.
  61. ↑ "Blazing Propane Tank Caught On Video As It Floats Past Flooded House" on YouTube
  62. ↑ Vermef v. City of Boulder City, 80P.3d445 , 447(Nev.2003)("In Nylund, this court explained that immunity is granted for negligent emergency management activities because in "an emergency, the government entity leading the response operation does not have time to deliberate and chart a course calculated to provide the customary degree of due care."[19] To grant immunity for pre-emergency negligence, which is wholly independent from negligent emergency management, would not comport with the policy underlying NRS 414.110.").
  63. 1 2 Kusler, Jon A., Esq (2004). "No Adverse Impact Floodplain Management and the Courts" (PDF). www.floods.org. Association of State Floodplain Managers. Retrieved February 4, 2009.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  64. ↑ "Corps Planning: Floodplain Management Services" (PDF). U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Planning Community Toolbox, Planner's Library, Fact Sheets. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. June 13, 2017. Retrieved February 28, 2019.
  65. ↑ 33 C.F.R. § 320.1
  66. ↑ 42 U.S.C.   § 2024
  67. ↑ "Overwhelming risk: Rethinking flood insurance in a world of rising seas" (PDF). Union of Concerned Scientists. February 2014. p. 7. Retrieved 6 October 2016.
  68. 1 2 hanscom, Greg (13 January 2014). "Flood pressure: Climate disasters drown FEMA's insurance plans". Grist. Retrieved 31 January 2014.
  69. ↑ Joyce, Christopher; McCammon, Sarah (September 27, 2017). "Debt-Laden FEMA Is Slow To Act On Program That Buys Flooded Houses". Morning Edition. NPR. Retrieved 8 October 2024.
  70. ↑ "Federal program meant to help flood victims spends millions fighting claims". CBS News. 30 April 2018.
  71. ↑ Dwyer, Jim (August 17, 2017). "A 'Common Sense' Flood Zone Rule Gets Lost in the Trump Storm". The New York Times . Retrieved 5 February 2022.
  72. ↑ "Marsh calls for reforms to national flood programme". Initelligent Insurer Review. December 10, 2015. Retrieved 2 February 2022.
  73. ↑ Zaffino, Peter (December 15, 2015). "The Climate Risk No One Is Talking About". Fortune. Retrieved 2 February 2022.
  74. ↑ van der Wiel, Karin; Kapnick, Sarah B.; van Oldenborgh, Geert Jan; Whan, Kirien; Philip, Sjoukje; Vecchi, Gabriel A.; Singh, Roop K.; Arrighi, Julie; Cullen, Heidi (February 14, 2017). "Rapid attribution of the August 2016 flood-inducing extreme precipitation in south Louisiana to climate change" (PDF). www.hydrol-earth-syst-sci.net. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences. Retrieved February 8, 2019.
  75. ↑ Freedman, Lisa (August 15, 2017). "Trump Signs Order Rolling Back Environmental Rules on Infrastructure". nyt.com. New York Times. Retrieved 2 February 2022.
  76. ↑ Scata, Joel (October 14, 2021). "FEMA Moves to Reform Flood Insurance Program". nrdc.org. Natural Resources Defense Council. Retrieved 4 February 2022.

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