No-fly zone

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Countries previously subject to no-fly zones - Iraq, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Libya Countries which no-fly-zone area was applied in their area.svg
Countries previously subject to no-fly zones – Iraq, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Libya

A no-fly zone, also known as a no-flight zone (NFZ), or air exclusion zone (AEZ), [1] is a territory or area established by a military power over which certain aircraft are not permitted to fly. Such zones are usually set up in an enemy power's territory during a conflict for humanitarian or military reasons without consent of the enemy state, similar in concept to an aerial demilitarized zone, and usually intend to prohibit the enemy's military aircraft from operating in the region. Military action is employed by the enforcing state and, depending on the terms of the NFZ, may include preemptive attacks to prevent potential violations, reactive force targeted at violating aircraft, or surveillance with no use of force. Air exclusion zones and anti-aircraft defences are sometimes set up in a civilian context, for example to protect sensitive locations, or events such as the 2012 London Olympic Games, against terrorist air attack. A no-fly zone is generally not considered a form of aerial blockade due to its more limited scope compared to an aerial blockade. [2]

Contents

No-fly zones are a modern phenomenon established in the 1990s. They can be distinguished from traditional air power missions by their coercive appropriation of another nation's airspace only, to achieve aims on the ground within the target nation. While the Royal Air Force (RAF) conducted prototypical air control operations over various contentious colonies between the two World Wars, no-fly zones did not assume their modern form until the end of the Gulf War in 1991. [3]

During the Cold War, the risk of local conflict escalating into nuclear showdown made military intervention as a tool of United States statecraft unappealing. Furthermore, air power was a relatively blunt instrument until the operational maturation of stealth and precision-strike technologies. Before the Gulf War of 1991, it had not been possible to perform nuanced attacks against transitory, difficult-to-reach targets, and air power thus lacked the ability to produce decisive political effects short of total war. However, the demise of the Soviet Union and technological advances in aerospace capabilities made no-fly zones viable in both political and military contexts. [3]

Enforcement of a no-fly zone is subject to the rules of armed conflict under international humanitarian law. [2]

Past no-fly zones

Iraq, 1991–2003

1990s no-fly zones in Iraq Iraq NO FLY ZONES.PNG
1990s no-fly zones in Iraq

Following the 1991 Gulf War, the United States along with other Coalition nations established two no-fly zones in Iraq. [4] US and Coalition officials stated that the northern no-fly zone was intended to prevent attacks against the Kurdish people by the Iraqi regime of Saddam Hussein, and that the southern no-fly-zone was intended to protect Iraq's Shia population. On 16 March 1988, the Iraqi Air Force deployed chemical weapons against Kurdish civilians during the Halabja chemical attack, killing roughly 5,000. This air-to-ground event served as part of the motivation used by Coalition Forces in order to extend and expand the NFZs, as well as citing parts of Article 42 within the U.N. Charter. The southern no-fly zone originally extended to the 32nd parallel, [4] but was extended to the 33rd parallel in 1996. [5] By 1999, over 1,800 bombs had reportedly been dropped on Iraq. [6]

This military action was not authorised by the United Nations. [7] The Secretary-General of the United Nations at the time the resolution was passed, Boutros Boutros-Ghali called the no-fly zones "illegal" in a February 2003 interview with John Pilger for ZNet. [8] [9] In 1998, France withdrew from the operation, [4] with French Foreign Minister Hubert Vedrine saying that "there is no basis in international law for this type of bombing". [7]

Civilian deaths

The United Nations reported that in 1999 alone, 144 civilians had been killed during Coalition bombing efforts. [10] An internal UN Security Sector report found that, in one five-month period, 41% of the victims were civilians. [11]

Bosnia and Herzegovina, 1993–1995

In 1992, the United Nations Security Council passed United Nations Security Council Resolution 781, prohibiting unauthorized military flights in Bosnian airspace. This led to Operation Sky Monitor, where NATO monitored violations of the no-fly zone but did not take action against violators of the resolution. In response to 500 documented violations by 1993, [12] including one combat violation, [13] the Security Council passed Resolution 816, which prohibited all unauthorized flights and allowed all UN member states to "take all necessary measures ... to ensure compliance with [the no-fly zone restrictions]." [14] This led to Operation Deny Flight, during which the Banja Luka incident, the shooting down of at least four of a flight of six Serbian jets, occurred; the engagement was not only the first combat engagement of the operation, but also the first combat engagement in the history of NATO. [15] [16] NATO later launched air strikes during Operation Deny Flight and during Operation Deliberate Force. [17] [18] As many as 400 NATO aircraft participated in the air campaign. [19]

Libya, 2011

2011 no-fly zone in Libya Operation Odyssey Dawn - No Fly Zone - Libya March 2011.jpg
2011 no-fly zone in Libya

As part of the 2011 military intervention in Libya, the United Nations Security Council approved a no-fly zone on 17 March 2011. The resolution includes provisions for further actions to prevent attacks on civilian targets. [20] [21] On 24 March, NATO agreed to take control of the no-fly zone. [22] [23] [24] Shortly thereafter, several NATO members proceeded to mount an aerial offensive campaign, in which numerous Libyan government positions would be intentionally bombed. [25] [26] [27] Some NATO members did not contribute or did little to participate in the air campaign, leading to public criticism from US Secretary of Defense Robert Gates. [28] The NATO no fly zone was terminated on 27 October after a unanimous vote by the UNSC, [29] despite requests made by the Libyan National Transitional Council for its mission to be extended to the end of the year. [30]

Libya, 2018 and 2019

A no-fly zone was declared by the Tobruk-based LNA over the country's south during its offensive in the region in 2018. [31] It was later re-implemented for 10 days in 2019 as the LNA established control over oil fields in the region. [32] The LNA declared another no-fly zone across the country's west during the 2019 Western Libya offensive. [33] [34]

Discussion of a no-fly zone over Ukraine, 2022

Ukraine, with the annexed Crimea in the south and two self-proclaimed separatist republics in Donbas in the east Map of Ukraine with Cities.png
Ukraine, with the annexed Crimea in the south and two self-proclaimed separatist republics in Donbas in the east

Shortly after the start of the Russian invasion of Ukraine in February 2022, the Ukrainian leadership repeatedly urged NATO to enforce a no-fly zone over Ukraine, but the alliance rejected the request on account of risking further escalation and direct military confrontation with Russia. [35] [36] There were also questions over the effectiveness of implementing such a zone for the purpose of protecting the Ukrainian settlements, which have been subject to heavy and indiscriminate attacks from Russian artillery and other largely ground-based forces. [37] [38] On 18 March, the Russian-backed separatist government of the Donetsk People's Republic claimed that Russia would establish a no-fly zone over the Donbas region of Ukraine. [39]

Analysis

A 2004 Stanford University paper published in the Journal of Strategic Studies , "Lessons from Iraq and Bosnia on the Theory and Practice of No-fly Zones", reviewed the effectiveness of the air-based campaigns in achieving military objectives. The paper's findings were: First, a clear, unified command structure is essential. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, during Operation Deny Flight, a confusing dual-key coordination structure provided inadequate authority and resulted in air forces not being given authority to assist in key situations; Second, to avoid a "perpetual patrol problem", states must know in advance their policy objectives and the exit strategy for no-fly zones; Third, that the effectiveness of no-fly zones is highly dependent on regional support. A lack of support from Turkey for the 1996 Iraq no-fly zone ultimately constrained the coalition's ability to enforce it. [40]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">NATO</span> Intergovernmental military alliance

The North Atlantic Treaty Organization, also called the North Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental military alliance of 32 member states—30 European and 2 North American. Established in the aftermath of World War II, the organization implements the North Atlantic Treaty, signed in Washington, D.C., on 4 April 1949. NATO is a collective security system: its independent member states agree to defend each other against attacks by third parties. During the Cold War, NATO operated as a check on the threat posed by the Soviet Union. The alliance remained in place after the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the Warsaw Pact, and has been involved in military operations in the Balkans, the Middle East, South Asia and Africa. The organization's motto is animus in consulendo liber. The organization's strategic concepts include deterrence.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Iraqi no-fly zones conflict</span> No-fly zones in Iraq proclaimed by the USA, UK and France between 1991–2003

The Iraqi no-fly zones conflict was a low-level conflict in the two no-fly zones (NFZs) in Iraq that were proclaimed by the United States, United Kingdom, and France after the Gulf War of 1991. The United States stated that the NFZs were intended to protect the ethnic Kurdish minority in northern Iraq and Shiite Muslims in the south. Iraqi aircraft were forbidden from flying inside the zones. The policy was enforced by the United States and the United Kingdom until 2003, when it was rendered obsolete by the 2003 invasion of Iraq. French aircraft patrols also participated until France withdrew in 1996.

This is a list of aviation-related events from 1992.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">United Nations Protection Force</span> Military unit

The United Nations Protection Force was the first United Nations peacekeeping force in Croatia and in Bosnia and Herzegovina during the Yugoslav Wars. The force was formed in February 1992 and its mandate ended in March 1995, with the peacekeeping mission restructuring into three other forces.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Operation Deliberate Force</span> 1995 campaign by NATO and UN forces against Republika Srpska during the Bosnian War

Operation Deliberate Force was a sustained air campaign conducted by NATO, in concert with the UNPROFOR ground operations, to undermine the military capability of the Army of Republika Srpska, which had threatened and attacked UN-designated "safe areas" in Bosnia and Herzegovina during the Bosnian War with the Srebrenica genocide and Markale massacres, precipitating the intervention. The shelling of the Sarajevo marketplace on 28 August 1995 by the VRS is considered to be the immediate instigating factor behind NATO's decision to launch the operation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Operation Deny Flight</span> 1993–95 NATO operation in Bosnia and Herzegovina

Operation Deny Flight was a North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) operation that began on 12 April 1993 as the enforcement of a United Nations (UN) no-fly zone over Bosnia and Herzegovina. The United Nations and NATO later expanded the mission of the operation to include providing close air support for UN troops in Bosnia and carrying out coercive air strikes against targets in Bosnia. Twelve NATO members contributed forces to the operation and, by its end on 20 December 1995, NATO pilots had flown 100,420 sorties.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Libyan Air Force</span> Air warfare branch of Libyas armed forces

The Libyan Air Force is the branch of the Libyan Armed Forces responsible for aerial warfare. In 2010, before the Libyan Civil War, the Libyan Air Force personnel strength was estimated at 18,000, with an inventory of 374 combat-capable aircraft operating from 13 military airbases in Libya. Since the 2011 civil war and the ongoing conflict, multiple factions fighting in Libya are in possession of military aircraft. As of 2019 the Libyan Air Force is nominally under the control of the internationally recognised Government of National Accord in Tripoli, though the rival Libyan National Army of Marshal Khalifa Haftar also has a significant air force. In 2021, the air force is under command of the new President of Libya, Mohamed al-Menfi that replaced Fayez al-Sarraj.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Operation Sky Monitor</span> NATO mission in Bosnia and Herzegovina

Operation Sky Monitor was a NATO mission to monitor unauthorized flights in the airspace of Bosnia and Herzegovina during the Bosnian War. The operation began in response to United Nations Security Council Resolution 781, which established a ban on the use of military aircraft in Bosnian airspace, and requested the aid of member states in monitoring compliance. Beginning on October 16, 1992, NATO monitored violations of the no-fly zone using E-3 Sentry NAEW aircraft based in Germany, Italy, Greece, and the United Kingdom. The operation documented more than 500 violations of the no-fly zone by April 1993. In response to this high volume of unauthorized flights, the Security Council passed Resolution 816, which authorized NATO to enforce the no-fly zone, and engage violators. In response, NATO deactivated Sky Monitor on April 12, 1993, transferring its forces to the newly established Operation Deny Flight.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">NATO intervention in Bosnia and Herzegovina</span> NATO operations in Bosnia and Herzegovina between 1992–2004

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973</span> 2011 resolution against Libya during the civil war

Resolution 1973 was adopted by the United Nations Security Council on 17 March 2011 in response to the First Libyan Civil War. The resolution formed the legal basis for military intervention in the Libyan Civil War, demanding "an immediate ceasefire" and authorizing the international community to establish a no-fly zone and to use all means necessary short of foreign occupation to protect civilians.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Operation Unified Protector</span> 2011 NATO operation in Libya during the civil war

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References

Citations

  1. ↑ Long, Robert A. (June 2012). The Coercive Efficacy of Air Exclusion Zones Myth or Reality (PDF) (Thesis). United States Air Force School of Advanced Air and Space Studies. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 16, 2022. Retrieved 31 January 2019. Fortunately, a more complete concept, the Air Exclusion Zone (AEZ), will satisfy those seeking clarity.
  2. 1 2 Schmitt, Michael N. (2022-03-18). "A No-Fly Zone over Ukraine and International Law". Lieber Institute of West Point.
  3. 1 2 "Air Exclusion Zones: An Instrument for Engagement in a New Century," Brig General David A. Deptula, in "Airpower and Joint Forces: The Proceeding of a Conference Held In Canberra by the RAAF, 8–9 May 2000," "Conference Proceedings". airforce.gov.au. Archived from the original on 20 March 2015. Retrieved 16 May 2015.
  4. 1 2 3 "Containment: The Iraqi no-fly zones". BBC News. 29 December 1998. Archived from the original on 2023-12-09. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
  5. ↑ "2nd Cruise Missile Strikes in Iraq". 3 September 1996. Archived from the original on 9 February 2005.
  6. ↑ Salvage, Jane (2002). "The health and environmental costs of war on Iraq" (PDF). MedAct. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-10-09.
  7. ↑ Pilger, John (23 February 2003). "A People Betrayed". ZNet. Archived from the original on 14 November 2007. Retrieved 5 March 2011..
  8. ↑ Pilger, John (7 August 2000). "Labour Claims Its Actions Are Lawful While It Bombs Iraq, Strarves Its People and Sells Arms To Corrupt States". johnpilger.com. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
  9. ↑ Sponeck, Graf Hans-Christof; Sponeck, H. C. von; Amorim, Celso N. (October 2006). A Different Kind of War: The UN Sanctions Regime in Iraq. Berghahn Books. ISBN   9781845452223.
  10. ↑ Guardian Staff (4 March 2000). "Squeezed to death". The Guardian. ISSN   0261-3077 . Retrieved 17 October 2019.
  11. ↑ Beale, Michael (1997). Bombs over Bosnia – The Role of Airpower in Bosnia-Herzegovina. Air University Press (Maxwell Air Force Base, Montgomery, Alabama). p. 19. OCLC   444093978.
  12. ↑ Lewis, Paul (19 March 1993). "U.N. Moving To Toughen Yugoslav Flight Ban". The New York Times . Retrieved 5 March 2011.
  13. ↑ Resolution (31 March 1993). "Resolution 816 (1993) – Adopted by the Security Council at Its 3191st Meeting, on 31 March 1993". United Nations Security Council (via The UN Refugee Agency). Retrieved 9 March 2011.
  14. ↑ Beale, pp. 2–3
  15. ↑ Owen, p. 21
  16. ↑ "A/54/549, Report of the Secretary-General pursuant to General Assembly resolution 53/35: The fall of Srebrenica". United Nations. 15 November 1999.
  17. ↑ Bethlehem, Daniel L.; Weller, Marc (1997). The 'Yugoslav' Crisis in International Law. Cambridge International Documents Series. Vol. 5. Cambridge University Press. p. liiv. ISBN   978-0-521-46304-1.
  18. ↑ Mahnken, Thomas G. (2010). Technology and the American Way of War Since 1945 . New York: Columbia University Press. p. 182. ISBN   978-0-231-12337-2.
  19. ↑ Bilefsky, Dan; Landler, Mark (17 March 2011). "U.N. Approves Airstrikes to Halt Attacks by Qaddafi Forces". The New York Times.
  20. ↑ "Security Council Approves 'No-Fly Zone' over Libya, Authorizing 'All Necessary Measures' to Protect Civilians, by Vote of 10 in Favour with 5 Abstentions". United Nations. 2011.
  21. ↑ Brunnstrom, David; Taylor, Paul (24 March 2011). "NATO reaches agreement on Libya command (Google cached page)". National Post . Archived from the original on 6 December 2021. Retrieved 22 September 2016.
  22. ↑ "NATO to police Libya no-fly zone". Al Jazeera. 24 March 2011. Archived from the original on 26 April 2012. Retrieved 24 April 2012.
  23. ↑ Burns, Robert; Werner, Erica (24 March 2011). "NATO Agrees To Take Over Command of Libya No-Fly Zone, U.S. Likely To Remain in Charge of Brunt of Combat". Huffington Post . Washington D.C. Associated Press. Archived from the original on 17 February 2012. Retrieved 16 January 2012.
  24. ↑ "HC 119 Libya: Examination of intervention and collapse and the UK's future policy options" (PDF). 14 September 2016. p. 14. Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 September 2018. Retrieved 28 October 2018.
  25. ↑ Steinhauer, Jennifer (3 June 2011). "House Rebukes Obama for Continuing Libyan Mission Without Its Consent". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 11 April 2019. Retrieved 30 December 2018.
  26. ↑ "Libya: US, UK and France attack Gaddafi forces". BBC News. 20 March 2011. Archived from the original on 20 March 2011. Retrieved 20 March 2011.
  27. ↑ Cloud, David S. (11 June 2011). "Gates Tells NATO It Must Hold Up Its End". McClatchy-Tribune News Services (via Stars and Stripes). p. 3.
  28. ↑ "UN votes to end no-fly zone over Libya". Aljazeera. 28 October 2011.
  29. ↑ "Libya's Mustafa Abdul Jalil asks Nato to stay longer". BBC News. 26 October 2011. Archived from the original on 26 October 2011. Retrieved 27 October 2011.
  30. ↑ "Southern region of Libya is no-fly zone, LNA declares". The Libyan Address Journal. 8 February 2019. Archived from the original on 8 April 2019.
  31. ↑ "Haftar's forces confirm control of Libya's Sharara oilfield | The Libya Observer". www.libyaobserver.ly. Retrieved 8 April 2019.
  32. ↑ "Haftar forces announce no-fly zone after being targeted by air strike". english.alarabiya.net. 6 April 2019. Retrieved 8 April 2019.
  33. ↑ "Libya's Khalifa Haftar declares 'no-fly zone' over Tripoli". Al Jazeera. 24 November 2019.
  34. ↑ Basu, Zachary (5 March 2022). "Furious Zelensky tears into "weak" NATO for ruling out "no-fly" zone". Axios. Archived from the original on 8 March 2022. Retrieved 8 March 2022.
  35. ↑ "Putin Warns Against No-Fly Zone Over Ukraine, Likens Western Sanctions To Declaration Of War". RFE/RL. 5 March 2022. Archived from the original on 10 March 2022. Retrieved 8 March 2022.
  36. ↑ Antrobus, Sophy (5 March 2022). "No-fly zones would escalate the Ukraine war – but they shouldn't be off the table | Sophy Antrobus". The Guardian. Retrieved 7 March 2022.
  37. ↑ Levitz, Eric (8 March 2022). "The Terrible Case for a No-Fly Zone in Ukraine". NYMag. Archived from the original on 10 March 2022. Retrieved 8 March 2022.
  38. ↑ "Russia sets up no-fly zone over Ukraine's Donbass -Interfax". Reuters. 18 March 2022. Archived from the original on 19 March 2022. Retrieved 19 March 2022.
  39. ↑ "Lessons from Iraq and Bosnia on the Theory and Practice of No-fly Zones". The Journalist's Resource. Journalist's Resource.org. 22 April 2011.

Bibliography

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