Papilio troilus

Last updated

Spicebush swallowtail
Spicebush02.jpg
Status TNC G5.svg
Secure  (NatureServe) [1]
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Papilionidae
Genus: Papilio
Species:
P. troilus
Binomial name
Papilio troilus
Subspecies
  • P. troilus troilus
  • P. troilus ilioneus
Papilio troilus range map.PNG

Papilio troilus, the spicebush swallowtail or green-clouded butterfly, is a common black swallowtail butterfly found in North America. [2] It has two subspecies, Papilio troilus troilus and Papilio troilus ilioneus, the latter found mainly in the Florida peninsula. [3] The spicebush swallowtail derives its name from its most common host plant, the spicebush, members of the genus Lindera.

Contents

The family to which spicebush swallowtails belong, Papilionidae, or swallowtails, include the largest butterflies in the world. The swallowtails are unique in that even while feeding, they continue to flutter their wings. Unlike other swallowtail butterflies, spicebushes fly low to the ground instead of at great heights. [4]

Distribution and habitat

The spicebush swallowtail is found only in the eastern US and southern Ontario, but occasionally strays as far as the American Midwest, Cuba, Manitoba and Colorado. [4] While still larvae, spicebush swallowtails remain on the leaf of the plant on which they were laid. As adults, the butterflies do not limit their flight geographically and instead are motivated mostly by availability of water and nectar and mates within the species' range. [5]

This primarily black swallowtail is normally found in deciduous woods or woody swamps, where they can be found flying low and fast through shaded areas. Females tend to stay in open plains, [6] while males are typically found in swamp areas. [5]

Papilio troilus troilus

The more widespread subspecies of spicebush swallowtail is prevalent throughout the Eastern United States, from New England to Wisconsin, west to Illinois, Wisconsin, North Dakota and Nebraska. It also abounds in Texas and Colorado. [7] Temperature may be a limiting factor for the spread of P. t. troilus, as in experimental conditions, they do not fare well at or above 36 °C (97 °F) nor are they capable of flourishing at or below 14 °C (57 °F). [8]

Papilio troilus ilioneus

The smaller subspecies of P. troilus is confined to the Southeastern coastal United States, namely throughout Florida and along coastal Georgia and in places in Texas. [7]

Description

Spicebush Swallowtail in August.jpg
Papilio troilus Linne (1).jpg

P. t. troilus

Typically, the wingspan of a spicebush swallowtail ranges from 3 to 4 inches (7.6 to 10.2 cm). [9] [ failed verification ] Adults are primarily black/brown in color, with a trademark green-blue (male) or bright blue (female) splotch in the shape of a half moon on the hindwings. The forewing has a border of cream-colored, oval spots. In the middle portion of the wing, the spots can be moon shaped and a light blue in color. [7] Both sexes have cream-yellow moon-shaped spots on the edges of the hindwings and a bright orange color spot at the base of the wings. [10] In females, the orange spot at the base of the wings will turn a greenish-white shade in summer, but not the spring.[ citation needed ]

On the underside of the hindwing, there will be a dual row of orange spots, which distinguishes it from the pipevine swallowtail, which only has a single row of spots. In between these rows, there is more blue or green coloring. [7] Characteristically, the median (inner) orange spots are discontinuous, allowing the blue or green coloring to spread medially. [11]

P. t. ilioneus

The distinguishing difference in color between the two subspecies is evident where the spots, which are blue in color on the hindwing of the P. t. troilus, are more yellow in color in P. t. ilioneus. Additionally, splashes of blue can trail all the way down the tail of P. t. ilioneus. [7]

Ecology

The host plants of the spicebush swallowtail are most commonly either spicebush (Lindera benzoin) or white sassafras (Sassafras albidum). [12] Other possible host plants include prickly ash (Zanthoxylum), [13] as well as tulip tree (Liriodendron tulipifera), sweetbay (Magnolia virginiana), camphor (Cinnamomum camphora) and redbay (Persea borbonia). [9] Redbay and swampbay (Persea palustris) are the primary host plants for members of the P. t. ilioneus strain, while spicebush and sassafras as the primary hosts for P. t. troilus. [14] However, when given the choice between spicebush and sassafras, the P. t. troilus showed no significant preference for either. [15]

Additionally, P. t. ilioneus live only on redbay because that is the primary host plant within the Southern range. However, in a test of P. t. troilus and P. t. ilioneus on redbay, sassafras and spicebush, although the P. t. ilioneus had higher growth and survival rates on redbay than the P. t. troilus, as a holistic group, both subspecies performed better on sassafras or spicebush over time. [6]

In general, spicebush swallowtails tend to stick to plants that are members of the family Lauraceae. The preference for Lauraceae is so consistent among spicebush swallowtails that under experimental conditions, when placed in an environment with leaves other than Lauraceae, P. troilus died without eating anything. [16] This fact is especially noteworthy because Lauraceae are distantly related to the host plants of other species that are food for Papilio caterpillars. [17] The fact that spicebush swallowtails live and feed primarily on Lauraceae only is noteworthy also because most other varieties of swallowtail butterflies are nowhere near as specific. Part of the reason for the selective nature of P. troilus and host plants may have to do with the requirement of positive stimuli to confirm that a plant is Lauraceae among P. troilus before they will feed on it, while P. glaucus , for example, will at once try to feed on any plant presented to it. [6]

The insistence on feeding primarily on Lauraceae has its advantages for spicebush swallowtails. They are able to feed two to four times more adeptly and efficiently on Lauraceae than P. glaucus on the same plant, for example, who feed on Lauraceae as well as other types of plants. In addition, there has not been any other Lepidoptera species which feeds as efficiently as the P. troilus on spicebush. [16] However, none of the host plants of Papilio troilus occur throughout the full range of the spicebush swallowtail. As stated above, the P. t. ilioneus strain, found in Florida, mostly feeds on redbay, while P. t. troilus feeds on either sassafras or spicebush. In a study, it was found that those spicebush swallowtails that normally feed on redbay did not grow as well on spicebush or sassafras during the first instar of development, while all insects studied grew better throughout the larval period on sassafras or spicebush. In addition, the P. t. ilioneus strain was typically larger in size than the P. t. troilus. [14]

In a recent study, 3-trans-caffeoyl-muco-quinic acid was found to be the substance that compelled spicebush swallowtails to lay their eggs on members of Lauraceae. However, 3-trans-caffeoyl-muco-quinic acid is a component of the extract from sassafras plants but not from spicebush, redbay or camphor tree, the other top three host plants of spicebush swallowtails. This substance is not necessarily itself the stimulant but instead activates another as yet unknown compound that thus compels the spicebush swallowtail to lay eggs. Thus, this substance may hold the link for why some spicebush swallowtails prefer to lay eggs on sassafras rather than spicebush. In addition, 3-trans-caffeoyl-muco-quinic acid is a member of a family of acids, hydroxycinnamic acids, which are present in oviposition stimulants for some members of all five families of swallowtail butterflies. Hydroxycinnamic acids are also present in the extracts from host plants for two other species within the genus Papilio: the black swallowtail butterfly, P. polyxenes , and P. protenor . Thus, hydroxycinnamic acids may help explain why many types of swallowtails choose to oviposit on the plants that they choose. [17]

Food sources

Spicebush swallowtails gain sustenance from eight major sources. Joe-Pye weed, jewelweed, and honeysuckle are favorite sources of nectar for the adults. [10] They have also been known to drink nectar from lantanas, [2] as well as thistles, milkweeds, azalea, dogbane, mimosa, and sweet pepperbush. [9]

Life cycle

Papilio troilus larva Spicebush Swallowtail, Papilio troilus (side) (3714906883).jpg
Papilio troilus larva

When female swallowtails decide which leaf to oviposit on, they frequently will drum their forelegs toward a leaf to identify it. Their forelegs have chemoreceptors located in the foretarsi that assess the chemical makeup of the leaf and use that information to decide if it is an acceptable spot. In general, females have shorter and denser sensilla on their forelegs than males, which may be a result of their having to sustain frequent heavy strokes. [6]

The eggs of the spicebush swallowtail are greenish white in color, are fairly large and are laid one or two at a time on a spicebush leaf. Once hatched, the young larvae chew through the leaf from the edge to the midrib, about 3⁄4 of an inch (19 mm) from the tip of the leaf. The larva lies on the midrib and exudes silk. Upon drying, the silk contracts and causes the leaf to fold up around the larva to form a shelter. At first, young larvae are brownish. [18] The brown color of the larvae is independent of leaf color and will occur even on a green leaf. [19] A folded leaf serves as the home for the young larvae. [4] During the day, the larvae remain in the shelter so as to avoid predators and come out at night to feed. Additionally, if larvae are disturbed while rolled up in the leaf, they emit a foul-smelling substance. [5]

When these larvae reach later stages, they turn greenish yellow before pupating. Older larvae live in a leaf, rolled up and lined with silk and held together by a line of silk. [4] In order to pupate, the larvae will leave the shelter and find the underside of a leaf near the ground to do so. [18] Upon discovery of a suitable leaf, the larvae begin the pupating process by emitting silk from their salivary glands, which helps attach the larvae to the branch or leaf. Then the larvae turn around while still emitting silk, which creates a "safety harness" for the pupating process. [20] At the end of the pupating process, the larvae have become pupae which are either brown (winter) or green (summer). [5]

The practice of turning either brown in winter or green in summer is called seasonal polyphenism. [19] Because the color of the pupa reflects the color of the deciduous host plants, since the leaves will turn brown in winter and green in summer. Even in cases where the leaves are not yet brown, the pupa appear to turn that color in anticipation of the changing colors. [6]

Roughly three generations of spicebush swallowtails occur each year. Most develop into adults throughout the range between the months of February and November. [18] The entire development process from egg to adult takes about a month. [21] Once they have reached the adult stage, Papilio troilus can live anywhere from two days to two weeks dependent on resource availability and predator avoidance. [5]

Feeding behavior

Spicebush swallowtails (along with P. palamedes ) are able to thermoregulate their thoraxes better than other Papilio species, perhaps due to their darker body and wing color. This allows them to fly and feed at lower temperatures than their counterparts. [6]

Social behavior

Spicebush swallowtails often engage in puddling , a type of behavior which occurs while adults are flying in search of food or mates. Puddling reflects the fact that while engaging in either feeding or mating behavior, i.e. when they are away from home, spicebush swallowtails tend to stay in groups. These groupings are typically located on the banks of water, such as sandy or moist ridges. When puddling in these groups, the Papilio troilus will extract moisture from the soil or sand near the water. [5]

Mating behavior

In general, both sexes will copulate with several mates during mating season. However, each time a female mates, she becomes less likely to mate again. [5]

One key known form of communication among spicebush swallowtails occurs during mating. Visual cues are important for males to find females, and courtship displays can be elaborate. While these courtship displays occur, the female and male are often in contact, which is likely a way for them to relay information to one another. [5] Additionally, the male butterfly will typically emit pheromones around the female butterfly and the female will use her scent to make her decision about mating. [10]

Females can often be found outside the treeline, in areas of direct sun. This may be due to the fact that these areas are in direct sunlight, which allows for higher thoracic temperatures. Males are less concerned with direct sunlight during mating because their thoracic temperature rises while performing vigorous courtship dances. Males may perform these courtship dances both to females perched on host plants as well as those flying freely. [6]

Parental care

Once eggs are laid, formal parental care ceases among spicebush swallowtails. Larvae do have a nutrient-rich egg, which keeps them well fed during the developmental period. Also, as noted above, females are very particular about host plant choice that aids in the success of egg development. [5]

Predators and avoidance

Predators

When threatened, a spicebush swallowtail butterfly exudes red drops of a foul-smelling liquid. Its many predators include birds, spiders, robber flies, and dragonflies. All of these creatures will try to eat both adult spicebush swallowtail butterflies and youthful larvae. [5]

Last instar, prior to pupation Spicebush swallowtail caterpillar head.jpg
Last instar, prior to pupation

Mimicry

The spicebush swallowtail's major form of predator avoidance is through mimicry. Both subspecies and sexes of Papilio troilus have the ability to perform mimicry both as a larva and as an adult.

Larval mimicry

As larvae, spicebush swallowtails have two stages of mimicry. While the larvae are in the early stages, they are dark brown and thus appear to resemble bird droppings, which encourages predators to leave them alone. [3] When the larvae have progressed to their fourth and last instar and are nearly ready to pupate, they turn a yellow-green color and are marked by two large black dots with a white highlight. The placement of these dots on the swollen thorax creates the illusion that the caterpillars are common green snakes. Mimicking snakes help the caterpillars to ward off predators, specifically birds. The caterpillar spicebush swallowtails enhance the physical resemblance behaviorally, as they have been observed to "rear up and retract the actual caterpillar head." [20]

The osmeterium of the caterpillar also helps to enhance the resemblance to a snake. When attacked, the larvae will expose the osmeterium, a Y-shaped organ typically folded up within the caterpillar. [20] For many spicebush swallowtails, the osmeterium is red, thus creating the illusion of a snake tongue and even further enhancing the disguise. [22]

Larval mimicry, fourth instar Spicebush Swallowtail Papilio troilus Caterpillar 2400px.jpg
Larval mimicry, fourth instar

Adult mimicry

Adult spicebush swallowtails practice another type of mimicry, as they resemble the pipevine swallowtail (Battus philenor), a foul-tasting butterfly. [10] Each of the sexes are able to exhibit mimicry of B. philenor successfully, even though the brighter-blue color on female wings is a little more vibrant than the pipevine swallowtail's coloring. [6] As they themselves are not unpalatable and the pipevine are, this is an example of Batesian mimicry. If predators know that the pipevine swallowtail has a foul taste, they are unlikely to eat it and also unlikely to eat the spicebush swallowtail. [2] There are other adult butterflies which mimic the poisonous B. philenor, including P. polyxenes , P. glaucus, C. promethea and L. astyanax , but P. troilus most closely resembles it. However, P. troilus has a greater physical resemblance to the other mimics than it does to B. philenor. [15]

Besides mimicry, another form of predator avoidance for spicebush swallowtails is the "club-like extensions from their hind-wings." An attack from a predator focused on the "false head" will leave the butterfly itself unharmed, though with slightly damaged wings. [2]

Related Research Articles

<i>Papilio glaucus</i> Species of insect

Papilio glaucus, the eastern tiger swallowtail, is a species of butterfly native to eastern North America. It is one of the most familiar butterflies in the eastern United States, ranging north to southern Ontario, Canada, and is common in many different habitats. It flies from spring until fall, during which it produces two to three broods. Adults feed on the nectar of many species of flowers, mostly from those of the families Apocynaceae, Asteraceae, and Fabaceae. P. glaucus has a wingspan measuring 7.9 to 14 cm. The male is yellow with four black "tiger stripes" on each forewing. Females may be either yellow or black, making them dimorphic. The yellow morph is similar to the male, but with a conspicuous band of blue spots along the hindwing, while the dark morph is almost completely black.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Swallowtail butterfly</span> Butterflies of family Papilionidae

Swallowtail butterflies are large, colorful butterflies in the family Papilionidae, and include over 550 species. Though the majority are tropical, members of the family inhabit every continent except Antarctica. The family includes the largest butterflies in the world, the birdwing butterflies of the genus Ornithoptera.

<i>Papilio polyxenes</i> Species of insect

Papilio polyxenes, the (eastern) black swallowtail, American swallowtail or parsnip swallowtail, is a butterfly found throughout much of North America. An extremely similar-appearing species, Papilio joanae, occurs in the Ozark Mountains region, but it appears to be closely related to Papilio machaon, rather than P. polyxenes. The species is named after the figure in Greek mythology, Polyxena, who was the youngest daughter of King Priam of Troy. Its caterpillar is called the parsley worm because the caterpillar feeds on parsley.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Scarce swallowtail</span> Species of butterfly

The scarce swallowtail is a butterfly belonging to the family Papilionidae. It is also called the sail swallowtail or pear-tree swallowtail.

<i>Lindera benzoin</i> Species of shrub

Lindera benzoin is a shrub in the laurel family. It is native to eastern North America, ranging from Maine and New York to Ontario in the north, and to Kansas, Texas, and northern Florida in the center and south. Within its native range it is a relatively common plant where it grows in the understory in moist, rich woods, especially those with exposed limestone.

<i>Papilio demoleus</i> Species of butterfly

Papilio demoleus is a common and widespread swallowtail butterfly. The butterfly is also known as the lime butterfly, lemon butterfly, lime swallowtail, and chequered swallowtail. These common names refer to their host plants, which are usually citrus species such as the cultivated lime. Unlike most swallowtail butterflies, it does not have a prominent tail. When the adult stage is taken into consideration, the lime swallowtail is the shortest-lived butterfly, with male adults dying after four days and females after a week. The butterfly is native to Asia and Australia, and can be considered an invasive pest in other parts of the world. The butterfly has spread to Hispaniola island in the Western Hemisphere, and to Mahé, Seychelles.

<i>Limenitis arthemis</i> Species of butterfly

Limenitis arthemis, the red-spotted purple or white admiral, is a North American butterfly species in the cosmopolitan genus Limenitis. It has been studied for its evolution of mimicry, and for the several stable hybrid wing patterns within this nominal species; it is one of the most dramatic examples of hybridization between non-mimetic and mimetic populations.

<i>Aristolochia californica</i> Species of flowering plant

Aristolochia californica, the California pipevine, California Dutchman's-pipe, or California snakeroot is a perennial woody vine of western North America.

<i>Battus philenor</i> Species of butterfly

Battus philenor, the pipevine swallowtail or blue swallowtail, is a swallowtail butterfly found in North America and Central America. This butterfly is black with iridescent-blue hindwings. They are found in many different habitats, but are most commonly found in forests. Caterpillars are often black or red, and feed on compatible plants of the genus Aristolochia. They are known for sequestering acids from the plants they feed on in order to defend themselves from predators by being poisonous when consumed. The adults feed on the nectar of a variety of flowers. Some species of Aristolochia are toxic to the larvae, typically tropical varieties. While enthusiasts have led citizen efforts to conserve pipevine swallowtails in their neighborhoods on the West coast, the butterfly has not been the subject of a formal program in conservation or protected in legislation. The butterfly is however of "Special Concern" in Michigan, which is on the Northern limit of its range.

<i>Papilio cresphontes</i> Species of butterfly

The giant swallowtail is the largest butterfly in North America. It is abundant through many parts of eastern North America; populations from western North America and down into Panama are now considered to belong to a different species, Papilio rumiko. Though it is often valued in gardens for its striking appearance, its larval stage can be a serious pest to citrus farms, which has earned its caterpillars the names orange dog or orange puppy. The giant swallowtail caterpillars possess remarkable camouflage from predators by closely resembling bird droppings. They use this, along with their osmeteria, to defend against predators such as wasps, flies, and vertebrates.

<i>Papilio demodocus</i> Species of butterfly

Papilio demodocus, the citrus swallowtail or Christmas butterfly, is a swallowtail butterfly which commonly occurs over the entirety of sub-Saharan Africa, including Madagascar, besides the southern Arabian Peninsula. The caterpillars feed on various native plants of especially the family Rutaceae, but have also taken to the leaves of cultivated citrus trees.

<i>Papilio aegeus</i> Species of butterfly

Papilio aegeus, the orchard swallowtail butterfly or large citrus butterfly is a species of butterfly from the family Papilionidae, that is found in eastern Australia and Papua New Guinea.

<i>Callosamia promethea</i> Species of moth

Callosamia promethea, commonly known as the promethea silkmoth, is a member of the family Saturniidae, which contains approximately 1,300 species. It is also known as the spicebush silkmoth, which refers to is one of the promethea silkmoth's common host plants, spicebush. C. promethea is classified as a silk moth, which stems from its ability to produce silk, which it does in the formation of its cocoon. C. promethea lives in forests in the eastern U.S. and does not damage the trees on which it lives. The species was first described by Dru Drury in 1773.

<i>Papilio xuthus</i> Species of butterfly

Papilio xuthus, the Asian swallowtail, Chinese yellow swallowtail or Xuthus swallowtail, is a yellow-colored, medium to large sized swallowtail butterfly found in northeast Asia, northern Myanmar, southern China, Taiwan, the Korean Peninsula, Japan, Siberia and the Hawaiian Islands. It was also recorded in the state of Arunachal Pradesh, India, in 2014.

<i>Papilio anactus</i> Species of butterfly

Papilio anactus, the dainty swallowtail, dingy swallowtail or small citrus butterfly is a medium-sized butterfly from the family Papilionidae, that is endemic to Australia.

<i>Papilio appalachiensis</i> Species of butterfly

Papilio appalachiensis, the Appalachian tiger swallowtail, is a species of swallowtail butterfly found in eastern North America, particularly in the Appalachian Mountains. It is a hybrid of another two Papilio species, Papilio canadensis and Papilio glaucus, with which it shares many characteristics. The butterflies are normally yellow and contain black patterns in their wings. Their wingspans range from 86 to 115 mm. The caterpillars range in color from green and yellow to orange and are ornamented with black specks that give them the appearance of a bird dropping, which is useful for camouflage, or a large eye, a form of mimicry that is also efficient for protection. This species is univoltine. Females lay their eggs in May.

<i>Cressida cressida</i> Species of butterfly

Cressida cressida, the clearwing swallowtail or big greasy, is a Troidine swallowtail butterfly found in northern Australia, New Guinea, Maluku, and Timor. It is in the monotypic genus Cressida.

<i>Papilio palamedes</i> Species of butterfly

Papilio palamedes, the Palamedes swallowtail or laurel swallowtail, is a North American butterfly in the family Papilionidae.

<i>Battus philenor hirsuta</i> Subspecies of butterfly

Battus philenor hirsuta, the California pipevine swallowtail or hairy pipevine swallowtail, is a subspecies of the pipevine swallowtail that is endemic to Northern California in the United States. The butterfly is black with hindwings that have iridescent green-blue coloring above and a row of red spots below; the caterpillars are black with fleshy protrusions and orange spots. This subspecies is smaller in size, hairier, and lays eggs in larger clutch sizes than the nominate subspecies. The egg clutches are deposited on the shoot tips of the California pipevine, a perennial vine native to riparian, chaparral, and woodland ecosystems of the California Coast Ranges, Sacramento Valley, and Sierra Nevada foothills. The larvae feed exclusively on the foliage and shoot tips of the pipevine, although adults eat floral nectar from a variety of plants. The plant contains a toxic substance, aristolochic acid. The larvae sequester the toxin, and both the juvenile and adult butterflies have high and toxic concentrations of the aristolochic acid in their tissues. Throughout the range of the species, Battus philenor, other butterflies and moths mimic the distinctive coloration of the swallowtail to avoid predators. However, there are no known mimics of the Californian subspecies.

References

  1. ↑ "NatureServe Explorer 2.0 - Papilio troilus Spicebush Swallowtail". explorer.natureserve.org. Retrieved 20 September 2020.
  2. 1 2 3 4 "Simply Butterflies," Accessed March 17, 2011, http://www.simplybutterflies.com/Backyard_Butterflies.html
  3. 1 2 Hall, Donald; Butler, Jerry (Aug 2007). "Spicebush Swallowtail," Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida. http://www.edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdffiles/IN/IN110700.pdf
  4. 1 2 3 4 Scott, James. Butterflies of North America. Stanford: Stanford UP, 1986.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Mickley, J. and A. Fraser (2006). "Papilio troilus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed March 30, 2011, http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Papilio_troilus.html
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Scriber, J., Y. Tsubaki and R. Lederhouse. Swallowtail butterflies: their ecology and evolutionary biology. Scientific Publishers: Gainesville, Fla. 1995.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 Hamilton, Tyler A. The Swallowtail Butterflies of North America. Naturegraph: Heraldsburg, Calif., 1975.
  8. ↑ Scriber, J. Mark, Keegan Keefover and S. Nelson, (2002). "Hot summer temperatures may stop movement of Papilio Canadensis butterflies and genetic introgression south of the hybrid zone in the North American Great Lakes Region." Ecography 25: 184-192.
  9. 1 2 3 "Spicebush Swallowtail". Archived from the original on 2012-03-19. Retrieved 2011-05-02.
  10. 1 2 3 4 Minno, Marc C.; Minno, Maria. Florida Butterfly Gardening: A Complete Guide to Attracting, Identifying, and Enjoying Butterflies of the Lower South. Gainesville: UP of Florida, 1999. ISBN   0813016657
  11. ↑ "Spicebush Swallowtail". Florida's Wildflowers and Butterflies. Florida Museum of Natural History. 2023. Retrieved 17 July 2023.
  12. ↑ Klots, Alexander. A Field Guide to Butterflies. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1964.
  13. ↑ Attributes of Papilio Troilus, Accessed March 17, 2011, http://www.butterfliesandmoths.org/species/Papilio-troilus
  14. 1 2 Nitao, James; Ayres, Matthew; Lederhouse, Robert; Scriber, Mark J. (Aug 1991). "Larval Adaptation to Lauraceous Hosts: Geographic Divergence in the Spicebush Swallowtail Butterfly," Ecology 72 (4): 1428-1435.
  15. 1 2 Carter, Maureen; Feeny, Paul; Haribal, Meena (1999). "An Oviposition Stimulant for Spicebush Swallowtail Butterfly, Papilio Troilus, From Leaves of Sassafras albidum." Journal of Chemical Ecology 25 (6).
  16. 1 2 Scriber, J. Mark, Michelle Larsen, Geoff Allen, Paul Walker and Myron Zalucki, (2008). "Interactions between Papilionidae and ancient Australian angiosperms: evolutionary specialization or ecological monophagy?" Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata 128: 230-239.
  17. 1 2 "Swallowtail Butterflies," Accessed March 17, 2011, http://www.uky.edu/Ag/CritterFiles/casefile/insects/butterflies/swallowtail/swallowtail.htm
  18. 1 2 3 Field Notes from the Beiser Field Station: October 7, 2008, The Spicebush Swallowtail, Accessed March 14, 2011, http://www.marietta.edu/~biol/biomes/spicebush.htm.
  19. 1 2 Shapiro, A.M., (1976). "Seasonal polyphenism." Evolutionary Biology 9: 229-253.
  20. 1 2 3 "Spicebush Swallowtail," Accessed March 17, 2011, http://www.carolinanature.com/butterflies/spicebushswt.html
  21. ↑ "Tiger Swallowtail Butterfly," Accessed 27 April 2011, http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/butterfly/species/Tigersw.shtml
  22. ↑ Brower, Jane Van Zandt (Jun 1958). "Experimental Studies of Mimicry in Some North American Butterflies: Part II. Battus philenor and Papilio Troilus, P. polyxenes and P. glaucus." Evolution 12 (2): 123-136 JSTOR   2406023.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.