Penicillium spinulosum

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Penicillium spinulosum
Penicillium spinulosum.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Ascomycota
Class: Eurotiomycetes
Order: Eurotiales
Family: Aspergillaceae
Genus: Penicillium
Species:
P. spinulosum
Binomial name
Penicillium spinulosum
Thom, C. 1910 [1]
Type strain
ATCC 10498, BCRC 32445, CBS 374.48, CCRC 32445, FRR 1750, IMI 024316, KCTC 6442, LSHB Ad29, MUCL 13910, MUCL 13911, NCTC 591, NRRL 1750, QM 7654, Thom 45, Wis. 143 [2]
Synonyms
  • Penicillium aurantioviolaceum Biourge (1923)
  • Penicillium baiicolaBiourge (1923)
  • Penicillium aurantioviolaceumBiourge (1923)
  • Penicillium roseomaculatumBiourge (1923)
  • Penicillium trzebinskii K.M. Zalessky (1927)
  • Penicillium virididorsumBiourge (1923)
  • Penicillium flavocinereumBiourge (1923)
  • Penicillium baiicolumBiourge (1923)
  • Penicillium mediocreStapp & Bortels (1935)
  • Penicillium mucosumStapp & Bortels (1935)
  • Penicillium roseovirideStapp & Bortels (1935)
  • Penicillium tannophagumStapp & Bortels (1935)
  • Penicillium tannophilumStapp & Bortels (1935)
  • Penicillium brunneovirideSzilvinyi (1941)
  • Penicillium internascensSzilvinyi (1941)
  • Penicillium trzebinskianumS. Abe (1956)
  • Penicillium trzebinskii var. magnum Sakag. & S. Abe (1956)
  • Penicillium odoratumM. Chr. & Backus (1961)
  • Penicillium abeanumG. Sm. (1963)
  • Penicillium palmense C. Ramírez & A.T. Martínez (1978)
  • Penicillium palmensis C. Ramírez & A.T. Martínez (1978)
  • Penicillium valentinum C. Ramírez & A.T. Martínez (1980)
  • Penicillium toxicarium I. Miyake ex C. Ramírez (1982)

Penicillium spinulosum (spinulosus means with small spines in Latin) is a non-branched, fast-growing fungus with a swelling at the terminal of the stipe (vesiculate) in the genus Penicillium . [3] [4] P. spinulosum is able to grow and reproduce in environment with low temperature and low water availability, [5] and is known to be acidotolerant. [6] P. spinulosum is ubiquitously distributed, and can often be isolated from soil. [5] Each individual strain of P. spinulosum differs from others in their colony morphology, including colony texture, amount of sporulation and roughness of conidia and conidiophores. [7]

Contents

History and taxonomy

Penicillium spinulosum was first discovered in 1910 by Dr. Charles Thom as a contaminant in another Penicillium culture sent to him by the German mycologist, Dr. Carl Wehmer. [7] Classification and identification of the genus Penicillium were solely based on morphological traits before DNA sequencing was discovered. [8] Key characteristics that are commonly involved in the grouping of P. spinulosm include vesiculate, rapid growth, spherical rough conidia and long conidiophores that projected from tangled mass of aerial hyphae. [3] [4] In 1949, Raper & Thom classified P. spinulosum as a member of the Penicillium section Monovertcillata due to its simple conidiospores branching pattern. [4] In 1980 , Pitt modified their classification by only including species with conidiospore stipes that are strictly or predominantly monovertcillate in the subgenus Aspergilloides, and P. spinulosm was placed under one of his newly introduced sections called Aspergilloides due to the presence of an apical swelling on the conidiophore resembling members of the genus, Aspergillus . [3] [5]

As classification based on morphology can be problematic, the taxonomy was repeatedly studied. [9] P. spinulosm is phenotypically similar to P. glabrum and the related species P. purpurescens and P. montanense. [9] Their categorization was studied by the international commission on Penicillium and Aspergillus in 1900, and the study indicated that the identification could be achieved based on width of the phialides, the conidial wall texture and the colony diameters, 4 out of the 15 strains, however, were still indistinguishable. [9] The problem of phenotype-based identification was later solved by Peterson (2000) by using nuclear ribosomal RNA gene sequences. [9]

Growth and morphology

Penicillium spinulosum has round, spiny or irregularly rough-walled conidia produced in loose columns. [10] [4] The diameter of a conidium ranges from 3.0 to 3.5 µm. [10] [4] Penicillium spinulosum has thin-walled conidia with smooth or finely roughened texture terminating in a vesicle, [5] the stipes of conidiospores generally range from 100 to 300 µm long, occasionally the length can be shorter than that. [10] The conidiophores of P. spinulosum can arise from submerged or aerial hyphae. [4] For conidiophores arising from aerial hyphae, the size of the stipes is shorter, e.g., 25–30 µm in length. [5] The apex of conidiophores is inflated with simple (or monoverticilate) branching pattern. [5] The conidiophores of P. spinulosum are terminated in 6 to 9 flask or bottom- shaped structure called phialides, these are not very abundant, and the length of individual phialide ranges from 2.5 to 3 µm. [4] [5] Subdivision of the genus Penicillium into subgenera and sections has traditionally been based on the branching pattern of the conidiophore. [4] The conidiophores of P. spinulosum do not branch and is described as monoverticillate. [4] However, modern phylogenetic studies of the genus Penicillium have revealed that these morphological patterns can arise independently, and thus do not reliably predict evolutionary relationships. [8]

Growing colonies of P. spinulosum have broad white edges consist of white mycelium. [4] [10] Young colonies appears blue-green or grey-green and white to cream or faintly pink on the reverse. As the colonies mature, the colour becomes grey. [4] The growth of P. spinulosum on czapek dox agar (CZ), malt extract agar (MEA) and Yeast Extract with Supplements (YES) occur rapidly. [10] On CZ or MEA, colonies can spread broadly, reaching 20–30 mm in a week at 25 °C with light or moderate sporulation. [5] [4] The texture of the colony when grown on CZ is velutinous to floccose, which means that conidiophores can either arise like short velvet with little aerial mycelium or from a mass of tangled aerial hyphae. [3]

Physiology

Penicillium spinulosum is psychrophilic, meaning that it is able to grow and reproduce at low temperature, [5] and xerophile as it can germinate in decreased water activity environment (down to 0.8 Aw) by producing compatible solutes using enzyme systems. [5] [11] In vitro, P. spinulosum does not grow at 37 °C. [12] Jussila stated that no mycotoxin production by P. spinulosum have been reported, [13] however, based on the work of Overy and colleagues, a mixed culture of P. glabrum and P. spinulosum was involved in chestnuts spoilage and mycotoxin production. [14]

Colonies growth and germination of Penicillium spinulosum were extremely sensitive to several different disinfectants and preservatives, among them, potassium sorbate and Suma Bac imposed the strongest inhibition effect. [11] Compare to the two other Penicillium species that isolated from baked products with P. spinulosm together ( P. expansum and P. verruculosum), P. spinulosm shows better resistant to benzoic acid but more susceptible to sodium lactate during spore germination. [15] P. spinulosm is able to survive in acidic environment although growth will be impeded. [11] When grow in a chemically defined glucose or sucrose medium, can produce large amount of fat that is non-toxic to rats. [16]

Habitat and ecology

Penicillium spinulosum is found world-wide, and is most commonly isolated from soil. [5] P. spinulosum has also been isolated from dextrin paste, distilled water containers, cotton yarn, walnut kernels, chrome tanned leather, vinyl wall covering, paracetamol tablet, diesel fuel and emulsion paint treated with chromate. [5] P. spinulosumis highly resistant to heavy metals, tannins and acids, and can be isolated from substrata contaminated by those materials. [5] [6]

Pathogenicity

The pathogenicity of P. spinulosum remains controversial. [13] In vitro, spores produced by P. spinulosum were reported to cause toxic and inflammatory responses in mouse macrophages. [13] However, according to an experiment done by Jussila, this fungus can induce inflammation due to the production of moderate pro-inflammatory cytokines. [13] The response of which is dose- and time- dependent and not cytotoxic even at high spore dose, so it is not likely to cause acute respiratory inflammations. [13] Respiratory tract infection due to P. spinulosm was reported by Delore et al. in 1955, but the isolate they described had smooth conidia and restricted growth; by contrast, P. spinulosm typically has conidia with small spines and its growth is rapid. [12] P. spinulosm is thought to be unlikely to cause human infection due to its inability to grow at 37°C. [12]

Related Research Articles

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Ascomycota is a phylum of the kingdom Fungi that, together with the Basidiomycota, forms the subkingdom Dikarya. Its members are commonly known as the sac fungi or ascomycetes. It is the largest phylum of Fungi, with over 64,000 species. The defining feature of this fungal group is the "ascus", a microscopic sexual structure in which nonmotile spores, called ascospores, are formed. However, some species of Ascomycota are asexual and thus do not form asci or ascospores. Familiar examples of sac fungi include morels, truffles, brewers' and bakers' yeast, dead man's fingers, and cup fungi. The fungal symbionts in the majority of lichens such as Cladonia belong to the Ascomycota.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mold</span> Wooly, dust-like fungal structure or substance

A mold or mould is one of the structures that certain fungi can form. The dust-like, colored appearance of molds is due to the formation of spores containing fungal secondary metabolites. The spores are the dispersal units of the fungi. Not all fungi form molds. Some fungi form mushrooms; others grow as single cells and are called microfungi.

<i>Penicillium</i> Genus of fungi

Penicillium is a genus of ascomycetous fungi that is part of the mycobiome of many species and is of major importance in the natural environment, in food spoilage, and in food and drug production.

<i>Aspergillus flavus</i> Species of fungus

Aspergillus flavus is a saprotrophic and pathogenic fungus with a cosmopolitan distribution. It is best known for its colonization of cereal grains, legumes, and tree nuts. Postharvest rot typically develops during harvest, storage, and/or transit. Its specific name flavus derives from the Latin meaning yellow, a reference to the frequently observed colour of the spores. A. flavus infections can occur while hosts are still in the field (preharvest), but often show no symptoms (dormancy) until postharvest storage or transport. In addition to causing preharvest and postharvest infections, many strains produce significant quantities of toxic compounds known as mycotoxins, which, when consumed, are toxic to mammals. A. flavus is also an opportunistic human and animal pathogen, causing aspergillosis in immunocompromised individuals.

<i>Penicillium roqueforti</i> Species of fungus

Penicillium roqueforti is a common saprotrophic fungus in the genus Penicillium. Widespread in nature, it can be isolated from soil, decaying organic matter, and plants.

<i>Penicillium expansum</i> Species of fungus

Penicillium expansum is a psychrophilic blue mold that is common throughout the world in soil. It causes Blue Mold of apples, one of the most prevalent and economically damaging post-harvest diseases of apples.

<i>Purpureocillium lilacinum</i> Species of fungus

Purpureocillium lilacinum is a species of filamentous fungus in the family Ophiocordycipitaceae. It has been isolated from a wide range of habitats, including cultivated and uncultivated soils, forests, grassland, deserts, estuarine sediments and sewage sludge, and insects. It has also been found in nematode eggs, and occasionally from females of root-knot and cyst nematodes. In addition, it has frequently been detected in the rhizosphere of many crops. The species can grow at a wide range of temperatures – from 8 to 38 °C for a few isolates, with optimal growth in the range 26 to 30 °C. It also has a wide pH tolerance and can grow on a variety of substrates. P. lilacinum has shown promising results for use as a biocontrol agent to control the growth of destructive root-knot nematodes.

Aspergillus penicillioides is a species of fungus in the genus Aspergillus, and is among the most xerophilic fungi.

<i>Aspergillus versicolor</i> Species of fungus

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<i>Aspergillus candidus</i> Species of fungus

Aspergillus candidus is a white-spored species of fungus in the genus Aspergillus. Despite its lack of pigmentation, it is closely related to the most darkly-pigmented aspergilli in the Aspergillus niger group. It is a common soil fungus worldwide and is known as a contaminant of a wide array of materials from the indoor environment to foods and products. It is an uncommon agent of onychomycosis and aspergillosis. The species epithet candidus (L.) refers to the white pigmentation of colonies of this fungus. It is from the Candidi section. The fungi in the Candidi section are known for their white spores. It has been isolated from wheat flour, djambee, and wheat grain.

<i>Penicillium digitatum</i> Species of fungus

Penicillium digitatum is a mesophilic fungus found in the soil of citrus-producing areas. It is a major source of post-harvest decay in fruits and is responsible for the widespread post-harvest disease in Citrus fruit known as green rot or green mould. In nature, this necrotrophic wound pathogen grows in filaments and reproduces asexually through the production of conidiophores and conidia. However, P. digitatum can also be cultivated in the laboratory setting. Alongside its pathogenic life cycle, P. digitatum is also involved in other human, animal and plant interactions and is currently being used in the production of immunologically based mycological detection assays for the food industry.

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Trichothecium roseum is a fungus in the division Ascomycota first reported in 1809. It is characterized by its flat and granular colonies which are initially white and develop to be light pink in color. This fungus reproduces asexually through the formation of conidia with no known sexual state. Trichothecium roseum is distinctive from other species of the genus Trichothecium in its characteristic zigzag patterned chained conidia. It is found in various countries worldwide and can grow in a variety of habitats ranging from leaf litter to fruit crops. Trichothecium roseum produces a wide variety of secondary metabolites including mycotoxins, such as roseotoxins and trichothecenes, which can infect and spoil a variety of fruit crops. It can act as both a secondary and opportunistic pathogen by causing pink rot on various fruits and vegetables and thus has an economical impact on the farming industry. Secondary metabolites of T. roseum, specifically Trichothecinol A, are being investigated as potential anti-metastatic drugs. Several agents including harpin, silicon oxide, and sodium silicate are potential inhibitors of T. roseum growth on fruit crops. Trichothecium roseum is mainly a plant pathogen and has yet to show a significant impact on human health.

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<i>Aspergillus clavatus</i> Species of fungus

Aspergillus clavatus is a species of fungus in the genus Aspergillus with conidia dimensions 3–4.5 x 2.5–4.5 μm. It is found in soil and animal manure. The fungus was first described scientifically in 1834 by the French mycologist John Baptiste Henri Joseph Desmazières.

Penicillium commune is an indoor fungus belonging to the genus Penicillium. It is known as one of the most common fungi spoilage moulds on cheese. It also grows on and spoils other foods such as meat products and fat-containing products like nuts and margarine. Cyclopiazonic acid and regulovasine A and B are the most important mycotoxins produced by P. commune. The fungus is the only known species to be able to produce both penitrem A and roquefortine. Although this species does not produce penicillin, it has shown to have anti-pathogenic activity. There are no known plant, animal or human diseases caused by P. commune.

Aspergillus wentii is an asexual, filamentous, endosymbiotic fungus belonging to the mold genus, Aspergillus. It is a common soil fungus with a cosmopolitan distribution, although it is primarily found in subtropical regions. Found on a variety of organic materials, A. wentii is known to colonize corn, cereals, moist grains, peanuts and other ground nut crops. It is also used in the manufacture of biodiesel from lipids and is known for its ability to produce enzymes used in the food industry.

<i>Mariannaea elegans</i> Species of fungus

Mariannaea elegans an anamorphic fungus. It is mainly found on rotting wood and soil. M. elegans is not pathogenic to humans, animals, or plants.

Botryotrichum piluliferum is a fungal species first identified in 1885 by Saccardo and Marchal. It was discovered to be the asexual state of a member of the ascomycete genus, Chaetomium. The name B. piluliferum now applies to the fungus in all its states. B. piluliferum has been found worldwide in a wide range of habitats such as animal dung and vegetation. The colonies of this fungus start off white and grow rapidly to a brown colour. The conidia are smooth and white. B. piluliferum grows optimally at a temperature of 25-30 °C and a pH of 5.5.

Aspergillus giganteus is a species of fungus in the genus Aspergillus that grows as a mold. It was first described in 1901 by Wehmer, and is one of six Aspergillus species from the Clavati section of the subgenus Fumigati. Its closest taxonomic relatives are Aspergillus rhizopodus and Aspergillus longivescia.

References

  1. ↑ MycoBank
  2. ↑ Straininfo of Penicillium spinulosum
  3. 1 2 3 4 Pitt JI, Hocking AD (1999). Fungi and Food Spoilage (2nd ed.). Gaithersburg, Md.: Aspen Publications. ISBN   978-0834213067.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Onions AH, Allsopp D, Eggins HO (1981). Smith's Introduction to Industrial Mycology (7th ed.). London, UK: Arnold. ISBN   978-0713128116.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Kozakiewicz Z (2000). "Penicillium spinulosum". IMI Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria. No. 143: Sheet 1429. ISSN   0009-9716.
  6. 1 2 Hujslová M, Kubátová A, Bukovská P, Chudíčková M, Kolařík M (February 2017). "Extremely Acidic Soils are Dominated by Species-Poor and Highly Specific Fungal Communities". Microbial Ecology. 73 (2): 321–337. doi:10.1007/s00248-016-0860-3. PMID   27687871.
  7. 1 2 Raper KB, Thom C (1949). A manual of the Penicillia. Baltimore,Williams & Wilkins Co.
  8. 1 2 Visagie CM, Houbraken J, Frisvad JC, Hong SB, Klaassen CH, Perrone G, Seifert KA, Varga J, Yaguchi T, Samson RA (June 2014). "Identification and nomenclature of the genus Penicillium". Studies in Mycology. 78: 343–71. doi:10.1016/j.simyco.2014.09.001. PMC   4261876 . PMID   25505353.
  9. 1 2 3 4 Houbraken J, Visagie CM, Meijer M, Frisvad JC, Busby PE, Pitt JI, Seifert KA, Louis-Seize G, Demirel R, Yilmaz N, Jacobs K, Christensen M, Samson RA (June 2014). "A taxonomic and phylogenetic revision of Penicillium section Aspergilloides". Studies in Mycology. 78: 373–451. doi:10.1016/j.simyco.2014.09.002. PMC   4255628 . PMID   25492984.
  10. 1 2 3 4 5 de Hoog GS (2000). Atlas of clinical fungi (2 ed.). CBS, Utrecht. p. 842.
  11. 1 2 3 Battey AS, Duffy S, Schaffner DW (October 2001). "Modelling mould spoilage in cold-filled ready-to-drink beverages by Aspergillus niger and Penicillium spinulosum". Food Microbiology. 18 (5): 521–529. doi:10.1006/fmic.2001.0438.
  12. 1 2 3 Howard DH (30 October 2002). Pathogenic Fungi in Humans and Animals. CRC Press. ISBN   9780203909102.
  13. 1 2 3 4 5 Jussila J, Komulainen H, Kosma VM, Pelkonen J, Hirvonen MR (October 2002). "Inflammatory potential of the spores of Penicillium spinulosum isolated from indoor air of a moisture-damaged building in mouse lungs". Environmental Toxicology and Pharmacology. 12 (3): 137–45. doi:10.1016/S1382-6689(02)00018-2. PMID   21782633.
  14. ↑ Overy DP, Seifert KA, Savard ME, Frisvad JC (2003). Spoilage fungi and their mycotoxins in commercially marketed chestnuts. OCLC   826306991.
  15. ↑ Levinskaite L (2012). "Susceptibility of food-contaminating Penicillium genus fungi to some preservatives and disinfectants". Annals of Agricultural and Environmental Medicine. 19 (1): 85–9. PMID   22462451.
  16. ↑ Shimi IR, Singh J, Walker TK (May 1959). "The component fatty acids of Penicillium spinulosum fat". The Biochemical Journal. 72 (1): 184–7. doi:10.1042/bj0720184. PMC   1196902 . PMID   13651157.
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