Phyllomedusa trinitatis

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Phyllomedusa trinitatis
Phyllomedusa trinitatis.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Amphibia
Order: Anura
Family: Hylidae
Genus: Phyllomedusa
Species:
P. trinitatis
Binomial name
Phyllomedusa trinitatis
Mertens, 1926

Phyllomedusa trinitatis (known as the leaf-nesting frog, Trinidadian leaf frog, or Trinidadian monkey frog) is a species of frog in the subfamily Phyllomedusinae. It is found in Venezuela and the island of Trinidad. [2]

Description

P. trinitatis is an arboreal frog with a bright green body, black and yellow eyes, and brown chin and chest. [2] [3] The skin of its back is "finely granular", dotted with small tubercles. [4] Frogs of the species P. trinitatis are between 50-80mm in length and display sexual dimorphism, with the females being roughly 1.5 times larger in size than their male counterparts. [5]

The limbs of P. trinitatis lack webbing. Instead, like other Hylidae tree frogs, its fore- and hindlimbs have adhesive toe pads with opposable first fingers and toes, making it well-adapted for climbing and traversing the treetop terrain. [2] [6] Male P. trinitatis lack external vocal slits. [7] [4]

Distribution

P. trinitatis can be found throughout northern Venezuela in the states of Distrito Federal, Sucre, Vargas, Miranda, Aragua, Carabobo, Yaracuy, Monagas, northern Bolivar and Guárico, and eastern Falcón. [8] On the island of Trinidad, it can be found in many areas including Arima, Chatham, and the Northern Range. [2]

Diet

Researchers propose that P. trinitatis stalks its prey because of its above-average size, slow movement, and toe pad shape. [9] P. trinitatis is known to eat insects such as field crickets. [2]

Predators

In a study conducted in Trinidad, West Indies, researchers studied the predation of P. trinitatis tadpoles by the larvae of the dragonfly Pantal flavescens , one of the predators of P. trinitatis during its tadpole stage. [9] Their research focused on whether the larvae preferred tadpoles of P. trinitatis or Engystomops pusulosus as prey, especially when the density of each species varied. Their results demonstrated that the relative prey density has no significant bearing on the dragonfly's preference of hunting for P. trinitatis tadpoles over Engystomops pusulosus [9]

Before adulthood, phorid flies in Trinidad feed on P. trinitatis eggs and are known to decimate entire clutches. [10]

Defense

This frog exhibits several defenses to evade predators and survive in hostile environments. As the frog flees its predators, it can release poison from glands found on its back. [11] Males may also remain silent rather than calling to prevent attracting predators to their locations. [11]

By probing the glands of P. trinitatis via electrical stimulation, scientists have isolated insulinotropic peptides from the frog's secretions. After purifying the secreted fluids of a few frogs, scientists purified four peptides that significantly promoted insulin release in BRIN-BD11 cells, which are capable of secreting insulin. [12] Researchers isolated a 28-amino acid peptide fully homologous to the C-terminal of the precursor to dermaseptin BIV. [12] These results suggest that P. trinitatis secretes an antimicrobial as part of its immune defense, though the specific mechanism of action is still unknown. [12]

Other studies have identified other defense peptides secreted from the frog's skin. One study found 15 dermaseptin peptides with varying antimicrobial properties and evolutionarily conserved amino acid regions. [13] One of the peptides discovered had only one cysteine residue in its structure (LTWKIPTRFCGVT), an uncommon distribution. [13] The most effective antimicrobial peptides found were phylloseptin-1.1TR and 3.1TR. Like defense proteins found in other frogs, these peptides exhibited more potency against Gram-positive than Gram-negative bacteria. [13]

Some studies provide insight into the structure-activity relationship between phyllo statins. Such studies of immunomodulation and insulinotropic activity suggest that these frogs could potentially be used to develop drug templates for anti-inflammatory and type 2 diabetes treatment. [14]

Mating

The mating season for P. trinitatis typically takes place from the end of the dry season until the beginning of the rainy season. [11] The species exhibits sexual dimorphism, and females are generally larger than males. [11]

Mating rituals of P. trinitatis transpire within foliage surrounding small bodies of water, encompassing ditches and similar locales. [10] P. trinitatis is known to call out to mates similarly to other frogs. An audio spectrogram of the call of the P. trinitatis showed it to have a principal note along with five secondary notes. [15] The loud call can function as a deterrent for other males attempting to seek female partners. [15] The fundamental frequency was believed to be 500 Hertz while the dominant frequencies were considered to be around 800 Hertz. [7] Additionally, more vocal males often travel greater distances in the environment. However, some males stay in place while calling out to other frogs. [16] Male frogs exhibit a leg-waving behavior to communicate non-verbally and to deter potential adversaries. [11] This behavior serves as a measure to preclude physical confrontations. [11]

Breeding site attendance

Most females only attend once in breeding, but for those who attended more than once, the nesting interval averaged 27.6 days. Males showed high pond loyalty; a few participated in two ponds while always preferring one. There are three attendance patterns for males. Most frogs attend on multiple nights, others may have sporadic attendance, or attend only once, however, there is no evidence that a particular model is the best choice for reproductive success. [17]

Development and life cycle

Life cycle

P. trinitatis mate and lay eggs in vegetation above water. The eggs are covered with jelly capsules or plugs produced by the mother. The jelly plugs are made of 96 to 97% water and 2 to 3% dry matter. They are composed of mucopolysaccharides and possess a dense core surrounded by a matrix. The jelly plug and capsule prevent water absorption during rainfall, [10] since unlike the eggs of other amphibians, Phyllomedusa eggs cannot survive in water. [10] The mechanism by which embryos survive with potential hypoxia is unknown. [18] Like other frogs in the genus Phyllomedusa, P. trinitatis enclose their eggs in folded leaves. The leaf case protects the egg clutch and shields the jelly plug from rainfall. [10]

P. trinitatis has no demonstrated leaf preference, in type or number, when constructing their nest. As one embryo hatches, it influences other eggs to hatch, [10] and after hatching, the tadpoles fall into the water. [9]

Physical development

The adult toe pad has some mucosal pores in "Hexagonal-shaped cells". [10] The frog has flat pads that lack lateral grooves on the front of each digit. This distinguishes the Trinidad frog from other tree frogs or hylids with different features, such as convex pads. [10] P. trinitatis has about 12 cell layers on its toe pad, including columnar and cuboidal cells. [10]

Using Gosner's (1960) staging table for frog development, they showed the stage-by-stage changes that occur in frog toe pads. For this page, when a stage is mentioned, it will concern Gosner's staging paradigm rather than Kenny's staging (1968). It is noted that in earlier stages of development, the forelimb appears to develop faster than the hindlimb based on how separated the digits were. By stage 38, all digits were layered with an epithelium of simple squamous cells. [10] At stage 39, the long toe had an expanded distal end and the toe pad had widened. [19] At stage 40, the circumferent groove became very apparent in the toe pads and was fully developed by stage 46, the end of metamorphosis. [10]

Researchers have claimed that, unlike other species of frogs, P. trinitatis has no evidence of having hatching gland cells during its development. Looking at Gosner stages 18 to 23, the scientists did not see hatching gland cells on the heads of the frogs. [20] These findings suggest that P. trinitatis might have a different hatching mechanism distinct from other frogs of other species. [20] Other studies, however, have shown conflicting results. [10] Embryos farther along in their development were shown to have hatching gland cells on the laterodorsal surface of the head. [10]

Research limitations

One study focused on best practices for tracking the frogs for field research and found that neither bobbins [note 1] nor radio tags were suitable. Although bobbins and radio tags had no significant effect on the distance the frog traveled, even though most of the tracking devices were 15 to 20% of the frog's weight, [21] the frogs became lethargic and less mobile by the third day of the trial. Additionally, the radio tag failed to locate the frogs in areas of high altitude or vegetation as the signal became less clear and placing bobbins on the frogs often led to physical harm like bruising. [21] Initial attempts of using fluorescent dye proved ineffective as the dye had a deleterious impact on the frog. [21]

Notes

  1. ↑ Thread bobbin tracking is a method of data collection sometimes used by herpetologists. See this paper for further elaboration.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Frog</span> Order of amphibians

A frog is any member of a diverse and largely carnivorous group of short-bodied, tailless amphibians composing the order Anura. The oldest fossil "proto-frog" Triadobatrachus is known from the Early Triassic of Madagascar, but molecular clock dating suggests their split from other amphibians may extend further back to the Permian, 265 million years ago. Frogs are widely distributed, ranging from the tropics to subarctic regions, but the greatest concentration of species diversity is in tropical rainforest. Frogs account for around 88% of extant amphibian species. They are also one of the five most diverse vertebrate orders. Warty frog species tend to be called toads, but the distinction between frogs and toads is informal, not from taxonomy or evolutionary history.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hylidae</span> Family of frogs

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<i>Phyllomedusa</i> Genus of amphibians

Phyllomedusa is a genus of tree frogs in the subfamily Phyllomedusinae found in tropical and subtropical South America and Panama. It has 16 recognised species.

<i>Phrynomedusa</i> Genus of amphibians

Phrynomedusa is a genus of tree frogs from the Southeast and South regions in Brazil. They were formerly considered to be part of the genus Phyllomedusa, as the "Phyllomedusa fimbriata group". Common names colored leaf frogs and monkey frogs have been coined for them.

<i>Cryptobatrachus</i> Genus of amphibians

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<i>Indirana semipalmata</i> Species of amphibian

Indirana semipalmata is a species of frog endemic to the Western Ghats region of southern India. They are small frogs, reaching lengths of about 36 mm (1.4 in) from snout to vent. The species breeds during the monsoons, laying their eggs on moist rocks and tree bark. Their tadpoles are terrestrial – hatching, feeding, and undergoing metamorphosis without ever entering any standing bodies of water.

<i>Phyllomedusa burmeisteri</i> Species of amphibian

Phyllomedusa burmeisteri, also known as Burmeister's leaf frog and common walking leaf frog, is a species of frog native to the Atlantic Forest biome in Brazil.

<i>Phyllomedusa bicolor</i> Species of amphibian

Phyllomedusa bicolor, the giant leaf frog, bicolor tree-frog, giant monkey frog, or waxy-monkey treefrog, is a species of leaf frog. It can be found in the Amazon basin of Brazil, Colombia (Amazonas), Bolivia, and Peru, and can also be found in the Guianan Region of Venezuela and the Guianas, and in Cerrado of the state of Maranhão in Brazil.

<i>Phyllomedusa sauvagii</i> Species of amphibian

Phyllomedusa sauvagii, the waxy monkey leaf frog or waxy monkey tree frog, is a species of frog in the subfamily Phyllomedusinae. It is native to South America, where it occurs in Argentina, Bolivia, Paraguay and Brazil. This species is arboreal, living in the vegetation of the Gran Chaco.

Hyalinobatrachium orientale is a species of glass frog in the family Centrolenidae. It is found on the island of Tobago and in eastern Venezuela. Its common name is eastern glass frog. The Tobagonian population has been described as subspecies Hyalinobatrachium orientalis tobagoensis(Hardy, 1984). The latter is sometimes referred to as Tobago glass frog. H. orientale is distributed throughout the Central Eastern ranges of the Cordillera de la Costa in Venezuela and Tobago Island with an altitudinal range of 190 to 1200 meters.

<i>Mannophryne trinitatis</i> Species of amphibian

The yellow-throated frog, Trinidadian stream frog, or Trinidad poison frog is a diurnal species of frog in the family Aromobatidae that is endemic to the island of Trinidad in the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago. Trinidad poison frogs can be found in rocky streams in moist montane forests. The species has cryptic coloration and is sexually dimorphic. Mannophryne venezuelensis from the Paria Peninsula in Venezuela were also formerly included in this species. Currently this species is listed as of "Least Concern" on IUCN, but there is a general lack of understanding of its distribution. The frog experiences habitat loss. Both sexes are territorial and provide parental care together.

<i>Dendropsophus ebraccatus</i> Species of amphibian

Dendropsophus ebraccatus, also known as the hourglass treefrog, referring to the golden-brown hourglass shape seen surrounded by skin yellow on its back. Their underbellies are yellow. Their arms and lower legs usually display bold patterns while their upper legs or thighs are light yellow giving them the appearance of wearing no pants. The species name "ebraccata" translates to "without trousers" in Latin.

<i>Agalychnis lemur</i> Species of amphibian

Agalychnis lemur, the lemur leaf frog or lemur frog, is a species of frog in the subfamily Phyllomedusinae. It is found in Costa Rica, Panama, and adjacent northwestern Colombia. It is classed as Critically Endangered and threatened by the fungal disease chytridiomycosis.

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<i>Pithecopus oreades</i> Species of frog

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<i>Phyllomedusa tarsius</i> Species of amphibian

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Stefania ayangannae is a species of frog in the family Hemiphractidae. It is endemic to Guyana where it is known from Mount Ayanganna and Mount Wokomung, both in the Pacaraima Mountains.

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hemiphractidae</span> Family of amphibians

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References

  1. ↑ IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group (2020). "Phyllomedusa trinitatis". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2020: e.T55867A109536663. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-3.RLTS.T55867A109536663.en . Retrieved 16 November 2021.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 Kirton, Sparcle (2014). "Phyllomedusa trinitatis (Leaf-nesting Frog)" (PDF). The Online Guide to the Animals of Trinidad and Tobago. UWI.
  3. ↑ Walls, Jerry G. (1996). Red-eyes and other leaf-frogs. Neptune City, NJ: T.F.H. Publications. ISBN   0793820510.
  4. 1 2 Murphy, John C. (1997). Amphibians and reptiles of Trinidad and Tobago. Melbourne, Fla: Krieger Pub. Co. pp. 75–76. ISBN   9780894649714.
  5. ↑ "Croaking Science: Egg protection is a sealed deal for Trinidad leaf frogs". Froglife. Retrieved 29 Dec 2023.
  6. ↑ Taylor, Alice; Henry, Alison, eds. (Spring 2018). "Stranger Things: Meet the waxy monkey tree frog". Worldwide Wildlife Magazine . Washington, DC: World Wildlife Fund . Retrieved 30 Dec 2023.
  7. 1 2 Barrio-Amorós, César L. (7 September 2006). "A new species of Phyllomedusa (Anura: Hylidae: Phyllomedusinae) from northwestern Venezuela". Zootaxa. 1309 (1): 55. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.1309.1.5.
  8. ↑ Barrio-Amorós, C.L. (30 December 2004). "Amphibians of Venezuela, Systematic list, Distribution and References; an Update". Revista Ecología Latino Americana. 9: 1–48.
  9. 1 2 3 4 Sherratt, Thomas N.; Harvey, Ian F. (1989). "Predation by Larvae of Pantala flavescens (Odonata) on Tadpoles of Phyllomedusa trinitatis and Physalaemus pustulosus: The Influence of Absolute and Relative Density of Prey on Predator Choice". Oikos. 56 (2): 170–176. Bibcode:1989Oikos..56..170S. doi:10.2307/3565332. JSTOR   3565332.
  10. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Downie, J. Roger; Nokhbatolfoghahai, Mohsen; Bruce, Duncan; Smith, Joanna M.; Orthmann-Brask, Nina; MacDonald-Allan, Innes (18 June 2013). "Nest structure, incubation and hatching in the Trinidadian leaf-frog Phyllomedusa trinitatis (Anura: Hylidae)". Phyllomedusa: Journal of Herpetology. 12 (1): 13–32. doi: 10.11606/issn.2316-9079.v12i1p13-32 .
  11. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Smith, Joanna. "Glasgow University Exploration Society Trinidad Expedition 2001" (PDF).
  12. 1 2 3 Marenah, L.; McClean, S.; Flatt, P. R.; Orr, D. F.; Shaw, C.; Abdel-Wahab, Y. H. A. (August 2004). "Novel Insulin-Releasing Peptides in the Skin of Phyllomedusa trinitatis Frog Include 28 Amino Acid Peptide From Dermaseptin BIV Precursor". Pancreas. 29 (2): 110–115. doi:10.1097/00006676-200408000-00005. PMID   15257102. S2CID   36423729.
  13. 1 2 3 Mechkarska, Milena; Coquet, Laurent; Leprince, Jérôme; Auguste, Renoir J.; Jouenne, Thierry; Mangoni, Maria Luisa; Conlon, J. Michael (1 December 2018). "Peptidomic analysis of the host-defense peptides in skin secretions of the Trinidadian leaf frog Phyllomedusa trinitatis (Phyllomedusidae)". Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part D: Genomics and Proteomics. 28: 72–79. doi:10.1016/j.cbd.2018.06.006. PMID   29980138. S2CID   49714213.
  14. ↑ Pantic, Jelena; Guilhaudis, Laure; Musale, Vishal; Attoub, Samir; Lukic, Miodrag L.; Mechkarska, Milena; Conlon, J. Michael (April 2019). "Immunomodulatory, insulinotropic, and cytotoxic activities of phylloseptins and plasticin-TR from the Trinidanian leaf frog Phyllomedusa trinitatis". Journal of Peptide Science. 25 (4): e3153. doi:10.1002/psc.3153. ISSN   1075-2617. PMID   30734396. S2CID   73418326.
  15. 1 2 Rivero, J; Esteves, Andrés (1969). "Observations on the agonistic and breeding behavior of Leptodactylus pentadactylus and other amphibian species in Venezuela". Breviora. 321: 1–14.
  16. ↑ Kirton, Sparcle. "Phyllomedusa trinitatis (Leaf-nesting Frog)" (PDF). The Online Guide to the Animals of Trinidad and Tobago. UWI.
  17. ↑ Boyle, Cameron M.; Gourevitch, Eleanor H. Z.; Downie, J. Roger (2021-06-30). "Breeding site attendance and breeding success in Phyllomedusa trinitatis (Anura: Phyllomedusidae)". Phyllomedusa: Journal of Herpetology. 20 (1): 53–66. doi: 10.11606/issn.2316-9079.v20i1p53-66 . ISSN   2316-9079. S2CID   237895080.
  18. ↑ Hutter, Damian; Kingdom, John; Jaeggi, Edgar (2010). "Causes and Mechanisms of Intrauterine Hypoxia and Its Impact on the Fetal Cardiovascular System: A Review". International Journal of Pediatrics. 2010: 401323. doi: 10.1155/2010/401323 . ISSN   1687-9740. PMC   2963133 . PMID   20981293.
  19. ↑ Ba-Omar, T. A.; Downie, J. R.; Barnes, W. J. P. (February 2000). "Development of adhesive toe-pads in the tree-frog ( Phyllomedusa trinitatis )". Journal of Zoology. 250 (2): 267–282. doi:10.1017/S0952836900002120.
  20. 1 2 Nokhbatolfoghahai, M.; Downie, J. R. (1 August 2007). "Amphibian hatching gland cells: Pattern and distribution in anurans". Tissue and Cell. 39 (4): 225–240. doi:10.1016/j.tice.2007.04.003. PMID   17585978.
  21. 1 2 3 Gourevitch, Eleanor H. Z.; Downie, J. Roger (18 December 2018). "Evaluation of tree frog tracking methods using Phyllomedusa trinitatis (Anura: Phyllomedusidae)". Phyllomedusa: Journal of Herpetology. 17 (2): 233–246. doi: 10.11606/issn.2316-9079.v17i2p233-246 . S2CID   92035738.
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