Plasmodium coatneyi

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Plasmodium coatneyi
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Clade: Diaphoretickes
Clade: SAR
Clade: Alveolata
Phylum: Apicomplexa
Class: Aconoidasida
Order: Haemospororida
Family: Plasmodiidae
Genus: Plasmodium
Species:
P. coatneyi
Binomial name
Plasmodium coatneyi
Eyles etal., 1962

Plasmodium coatneyi is a parasitic species that is an agent of malaria in nonhuman primates. P. coatneyi occurs in Southeast Asia.[ citation needed ] The natural host of this species is the rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) and crab-eating macaque (Macaca fascicularis fascicularis), [1] but there has been no evidence that zoonosis of P. coatneyi can occur through its vector, the female Anopheles mosquito. [2]

Contents

While P. coatneyi cannot be transmitted to humans, it is similar enough to Plasmodium falciparum to warrant laboratory study as a model species. [3]

History

Plasmodium coatneyi was first discovered in 1961 by Dr. Don Eyles in the Malaysian state of Selangor. [1] Plasmodium coatneyi was isolated from an Anopheles hackeri before being found in its primate host species. This was the first occurrence of acquiring a new form of malaria through its vector instead of an infected host specimen. [3] The sample was first thought to be Plasmodium knowlesi due to the morphological similarities of the two species, but was later identified as separate due to having a tertiary periodicity compared to P. knowlesi’s quartan periodicity. The presence of P. coatneyi in a host was confirmed in 1963 by Dr. Eyles and his team when the protozoan was discovered in a crab-eating monkey found in the same area Selangor and again in a separate crab-eating monkey in the Philippines. [1] The newly discovered species was then named in honor of Dr. G. Robert Coatney, an American malariologist.

Life Cycle

Chart of the genus Plasmodium life cycle. Plasmodium lifecycle PHIL 3405 lores.jpg
Chart of the genus Plasmodium life cycle.

The life cycle of P. coatneyi takes the complex form representative of the genus Plasmodium. When a female Anopheles mosquito bites a human, a haploid form of the protozoan called a sporozoite is transferred from the salivary glands into the circulatory system of the human. These motile sporozoites are then taken by the circulatory system to the liver, where they invade the liver cells (hepatocytes). [4]

During the next 5–16 days, [5] these sporozoites mature and divide by asexual reproduction into schizonts. Schizonts are structures that contain thousands of haploid merozoites, and rupture to release merozoites into the circulatory system. [6]

These merozoites then infect the red blood cells (erythrocytes) where they consume the hemoglobin of the red blood cells for energy and become immature, ring stage trophozoites. [5] The trophozoites act as an intermediate stage, from which two forms can be formed. The trophozoites can mature into schizonts and release more merozoites into the circulatory system, or they can differentiate into still haploid gametocytes. The gametocyte is the sexual stage of the life cycle, with female macrogametocytes and male microgametocytes. [1] [6]

Sexual reproduction does not occur in the human host. Instead, the gametocytes only fuse to form a diploid zygote when ingested by the female Anopheles. [5] The fertilization takes place in the stomach, where the zygotes can move into the midgut after they differentiate into motile version of the zygote, an ookinetes. Ookinetes then mature into oocytes inside the epithelial tissue of the midgut. [7] Once grown, the oocyte ruptures and releases sporozoites into the salivary glands of the mosquito. The process then repeats itself through the human host if the mosquito lives long enough to infect a human. [6]

Vectors

Clinical Features

When infected with P. coatneyi, the host shows the general symptoms of malaria are fever, headache, chills, vomiting, diarrhea, jaundice, joint pain and anemia. [8] These symptoms occur in the form of paroxysmal attacks, which is a sudden increase of these symptoms after a period of remission. This is due to the release of merozoites from schizonts inside the red blood cells. [6] This cycle occurs every other day when infected with P. coatneyi, a tertiary periodicity. This is compared to the quartan periodicity shown in some other Plasmodium species, such as P. knowlesi which occurs every three days. [9]

Infection causes metabolic disturbances. [10] Davis et al 1993 experimented with rhesus macaques and produced increased glucose and lactate correlated with increased parasitemia. [10] They believed this also correlated with increased insulin resistance and lactate acidosis. [10]

P. coatneyi, unlike many other species in the genus Plasmodium, is a cause of cerebral malaria. [3] The symptoms of this severe form of malaria include impaired consciousness such as a coma, seizures, brain swelling, intracranial hypertension, and other neurological abnormalities. While the exact mechanism for cerebral malaria is not known, the most commonly used explanation is the sequestration of the protozoan infected erythrocytes in the microvasculature of the brain. [11] Due to the fact that it is a species of Plasmodium which only causes malaria in nonhuman primates, [1] no treatment for this form of malaria has been specifically adapted. However, treatment with subcurative levels of artemether has been shown to reduce symptoms. This used to treat P. falciparum, and is grouped into artemisinin-based combination therapies used most for P. falciparum treatment. [12]

Use as a Model Organism

While more closely related to Plasmodium vivax than to P. falciparum, [13] P. coatneyi has been used as a model organism for P. falciparum in a model organism for humans, rhesus macaques. [3] This is due to the several similarities that P. coatneyi and P. falciparum have in common. These similarities includes having a tertiary periodicity, causing cerebral malaria, causing knob protrusion on the surface of infected red blood cells, and adhering the red blood cells to the same sites of the endothelium. Because of these similarities, experiments have been run to further research the mechanism(s) for cerebral malaria. [11] [14]

On a broader scale, P. coatneyi can cause metabolic dysfunction, coagulopathy, and anemia very close to that found in humans. Therefore, P.coatneyi was predicted to be able to test pathophysiological interactions between the parasite and its host. This can be used to mimic the conditions of a human with malaria, allowing for testing without any sort of human exposure taking place. [14]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Malaria</span> Mosquito-borne infectious disease

Malaria is a mosquito-borne infectious disease that affects humans and other vertebrates. Human malaria causes symptoms that typically include fever, fatigue, vomiting, and headaches. In severe cases, it can cause jaundice, seizures, coma, or death. Symptoms usually begin 10 to 15 days after being bitten by an infected Anopheles mosquito. If not properly treated, people may have recurrences of the disease months later. In those who have recently survived an infection, reinfection usually causes milder symptoms. This partial resistance disappears over months to years if the person has no continuing exposure to malaria.

<i>Plasmodium</i> Genus of parasitic protists that can cause malaria

Plasmodium is a genus of unicellular eukaryotes that are obligate parasites of vertebrates and insects. The life cycles of Plasmodium species involve development in a blood-feeding insect host which then injects parasites into a vertebrate host during a blood meal. Parasites grow within a vertebrate body tissue before entering the bloodstream to infect red blood cells. The ensuing destruction of host red blood cells can result in malaria. During this infection, some parasites are picked up by a blood-feeding insect, continuing the life cycle.

<i>Plasmodium falciparum</i> Protozoan species of malaria parasite

Plasmodium falciparum is a unicellular protozoan parasite of humans, and the deadliest species of Plasmodium that causes malaria in humans. The parasite is transmitted through the bite of a female Anopheles mosquito and causes the disease's most dangerous form, falciparum malaria. It is responsible for around 50% of all malaria cases. P. falciparum is therefore regarded as the deadliest parasite in humans. It is also associated with the development of blood cancer and is classified as a Group 2A (probable) carcinogen.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gametocyte</span> Eukaryotic germ stem cell

A gametocyte is a eukaryotic germ cell that divides by mitosis into other gametocytes or by meiosis into gametids during gametogenesis. Male gametocytes are called spermatocytes, and female gametocytes are called oocytes.

<i>Plasmodium vivax</i> Species of single-celled organism

Plasmodium vivax is a protozoal parasite and a human pathogen. This parasite is the most frequent and widely distributed cause of recurring malaria. Although it is less virulent than Plasmodium falciparum, the deadliest of the five human malaria parasites, P. vivax malaria infections can lead to severe disease and death, often due to splenomegaly. P. vivax is carried by the female Anopheles mosquito; the males do not bite.

<i>Plasmodium ovale</i> Species of single-celled organism

Plasmodium ovale is a species of parasitic protozoon that causes tertian malaria in humans. It is one of several species of Plasmodium parasites that infect humans, including Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax which are responsible for most cases of malaria in the world. P. ovale is rare compared to these two parasites, and substantially less dangerous than P. falciparum.

<i>Plasmodium malariae</i> Species of single-celled organism

Plasmodium malariae is a parasitic protozoan that causes malaria in humans. It is one of several species of Plasmodium parasites that infect other organisms as pathogens, also including Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax, responsible for most malarial infection. Found worldwide, it causes a so-called "benign malaria", not nearly as dangerous as that produced by P. falciparum or P. vivax. The signs include fevers that recur at approximately three-day intervals – a quartan fever or quartan malaria – longer than the two-day (tertian) intervals of the other malarial parasite.

<i>Plasmodium knowlesi</i> Species of single-celled organism

Plasmodium knowlesi is a parasite that causes malaria in humans and other primates. It is found throughout Southeast Asia, and is the most common cause of human malaria in Malaysia. Like other Plasmodium species, P. knowlesi has a life cycle that requires infection of both a mosquito and a warm-blooded host. While the natural warm-blooded hosts of P. knowlesi are likely various Old World monkeys, humans can be infected by P. knowlesi if they are fed upon by infected mosquitoes. P. knowlesi is a eukaryote in the phylum Apicomplexa, genus Plasmodium, and subgenus Plasmodium. It is most closely related to the human parasite Plasmodium vivax as well as other Plasmodium species that infect non-human primates.

<i>Plasmodium berghei</i> Single celled parasite, rodent malaria

Plasmodium berghei is a single-celled parasite causing rodent malaria. It is in the Plasmodium subgenus Vinckeia.

Plasmodium atheruri is a species of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Vinckeia. As in all members of this genus, it is parasitic on vertebrate and insect hosts. The natural vertebrate host is the African porcupine but it is possible to infect the large vesper mouse and Meriones unguiculatus.

Plasmodium eylesi is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Plasmodium.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of malaria</span> History of malaria infections

The history of malaria extends from its prehistoric origin as a zoonotic disease in the primates of Africa through to the 21st century. A widespread and potentially lethal human infectious disease, at its peak malaria infested every continent except Antarctica. Its prevention and treatment have been targeted in science and medicine for hundreds of years. Since the discovery of the Plasmodium parasites which cause it, research attention has focused on their biology as well as that of the mosquitoes which transmit the parasites.

Plasmodium juxtanucleare is a species of parasite in the family Plasmodiidae. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are birds.

Plasmodium fieldi is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium sub genus Plasmodium found in Malaysia. This species is related to Plasmodium ovale and Plasmodium simiovale. As in all Plasmodium species, P. fieldi has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are primates.

Plasmodium vaughani is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium, and the type species of the subgenus Novyella. As in all Plasmodium species, P. vaughani has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are birds.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Apicomplexan life cycle</span> Apicomplexa life cycle

Apicomplexans, a group of intracellular parasites, have life cycle stages that allow them to survive the wide variety of environments they are exposed to during their complex life cycle. Each stage in the life cycle of an apicomplexan organism is typified by a cellular variety with a distinct morphology and biochemistry.

<i>Plasmodium cynomolgi</i> Species of single-celled organism

Plasmodium cynomolgi is an apicomplexan parasite that infects mosquitoes and Asian Old World monkeys. In recent years, a number of natural infections of humans have also been documented. This species has been used as a model for human Plasmodium vivax because Plasmodium cynomolgi shares the same life cycle and some important biological features with P. vivax.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Quartan fever</span> Medical condition

Quartan fever is one of the four types of malaria which can be contracted by humans.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Coatney, G. Robert; Collins, William E.; Contacos, Peter G. (March 2003) [1st. Pub. 1971]. "Chapter 23: Plasmodium coatneyi" (PDF). The Primate Malarias. U.S. National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases. pp. 289–299.
  2. ↑ Collins, W.; Sullivan, J.; Nace, D. (April 2002). "Experimental infection of Anopheles farauti with different species of Plasmodium". Journal of Parasitology. 88 (2): 295–298. doi:10.2307/3285576. JSTOR   3285576. PMID   12054000.
  3. 1 2 3 4 Sullivan, JoAnn S.; Bounngaseng, Amy; Stewart, Ann; Sullivan, James J.; Galland, G.Gale; Henry, Fleetwood; Collin, William E. (2005). "Infection of Saimiri boliviensis Monkeys With Plasmodium coatneyi". Journal of Parasitology. 91 (2): 479–481. doi:10.1645/GE-3461RN. PMID   15986634. S2CID   46412287.
  4. ↑ Reece, Jane B.; Urry, Lisa A.; Cain, Michael L.; Wasserman, Steven A.; Minorsky, Peter V.; Jackson, Robert B. (2011) [1st. Pub. 2005]. "Chapter 28: Protists" . Campbell Biology 9th Edition. Pearson Education Inc. pp.  583–584. ISBN   978-032-15-5823-7.
  5. 1 2 3 "National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases". Life Cycle of the Malaria Parasite. NIAID. Retrieved 25 October 2013.
  6. 1 2 3 4 "Center of Disease Control". About Malaria. CDC. Retrieved 25 October 2013.
  7. ↑ "Ookinete". Dictionary.com. Retrieved 2 November 2013.
  8. ↑ Beare, N.A.; Taylor, T.E.; Harding, S.P.; Lewallen, S.; Molyneux, S. (November 2006). "Malarial retinopathy: A newly established diagnostic sign in severe malaria". American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 75 (5): 790–797. doi:10.4269/ajtmh.2006.75.790. PMC   2367432 . PMID   17123967.
  9. ↑ "The History of Malaria, an Ancient Disease". About Malaria. CDC. Retrieved 25 October 2013.
  10. 1 2 3 Lombardini, E. D.; Gettayacamin, M.; Turner, G. D. H.; Brown, A. E. (2015-06-15). "A Review of Plasmodium coatneyi–Macaque Models of Severe Malaria". Veterinary Pathology . ACVP ECVP JCVP (Sage). 52 (6): 998–1011. doi: 10.1177/0300985815583098 . ISSN   0300-9858. PMID   26077782.
  11. 1 2 Idro, Richard; Marsh, Kevin; Chandy, John D.; Newton, Charles R. J. (October 2010). "Cerebral Malaria; Mechanisms Of Brain Injury And Strategies For Improved Neuro-Cognitive Outcome". Pediatric Research. 68 (4): 267–274. doi:10.1203/PDR.0b013e3181eee738. PMC   3056312 . PMID   20606600.
  12. ↑ "World Health Organization". Overview of malaria treatment. WHO. Retrieved 1 November 2013.
  13. ↑ Seethamchai, Sunee; Putaporntip, Chaturong; Malaivijitnond, Suchinda; Cui, Liwang; Jongwutiwes, Somchai (April 2008). "Malaria and Hepatocystis Species in Wild Macaques, Southern Thailand". American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 78 (4): 646–653. doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.2008.78.646 . PMID   18385364.
  14. 1 2 Moreno, Alberto; Cabrera-Mora, Monica; Garcia, AnaPatricia; Orkin, Jack; Strobert, Elizabeth; Barnwell, John W.; Galinski, Mary R. (June 2013). "Plasmodium coatneyi in Rhesus Macaques Replicates the Multisystemic Dysfunction of Severe Malaria in Humans". Infection and Immunity. 81 (6): 1889–1904. doi:10.1128/IAI.00027-13. PMC   3676004 . PMID   23509137.
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