Diagnosis
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Algaemia is a secondary term that refers to the emerging condition in which green algae enter the bloodstream. Members of the genus Prototheca are the most common algae that leads to algaemia. Prototheca and Chlorella , which is extremely rare, are the only two known algae genera capable of inflicting disease on mammals, including humans, through invasion of host tissue. [1] The majority of cases are observed in dairy cattle as a cause of bovine mastitis as well as other domesticated animals. Cases of algaemia have been observed in dogs and cats as well. [2] Few cases have been observed in humans. Human cases of algaemia or, protothecosis, are examined on a case-by-case basis due to the particularity of each case. Protothecosis infection is classified based on the symptoms: (i) cutaneous lesions, (ii) olecranon bursitis, and (iii) disseminated or systemic type infections. [3]
Protothecosis can affect anyone but is most commonly seen with more severe symptoms in those who have preexisting conditions. Individuals with a weak immune system have been shown to experience the worst symptoms. Many symptoms are not specific to this infection and can be hard to differentiate. Prototheca is not included as a typical infection that is screened for and is usually not identified without examination by microscope. Polymerase chain reaction tests have shown to assists in the identification of Prototheca. Symptoms include but are not limited to: numbness in the extremities, olecranon bursitis or general inflammation, cutaneous infections in the hair, skin or fingernails, skin lesions, difficulty breathing, respiratory failure, multiple organ failure, and can result in death if not treated in the early stages of infection. [4]
The algal cells are commonly found in the soil and water of many regions. Prototheca, especially P. wickerhamii and P. zopfii, can colonize the skin, fingernails, respiratory and digestive tracts. Prototheca algae cells can enter the bloodstream through open wounds, mucous membrane pathways, or the ingestion or inhalation of the cells. Individuals who are immunocompromised begin to see more concerning symptoms as the cells build up within the bloodstream. [3]
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Treatments for human protothecosis can range from pharmaceutical to surgical efforts. Anti-fungal medications such as ketoconazole, itraconazole, and amphotericin B are commonly given drugs for treatment. Amphotericin B has proven to be the most effective but failure to treat or cure is not uncommon. Surgery is an option in some cases but is only when the infection remains localized in an area that can be excised. [3]
Prototheca is a genus of algae first identified by Wilhelm Krüger in 1894. Krüger first classified Prototheca as fungi. It was later reclassified as algae. It is believed that this genus of algae began with photosynthetic ability but over time transitioned to a parasitic form. Unlike most algae, prototheca cells lack chlorophyll and instead rely on a host for nutrients. [3] Two groups within Prototheca have been identified: those typically associated with cattle (P. ciferrii and P. bovis), and those considered human-associated (P. wickerhamii, P. zopfii, and P. miyajii). P. wickerhamii and P. zopfii are the predominant algae associated with algaemia. [5] Prototheca can exist in a variety of environments but have been found frequently in warm and humid regions. This specific algae is more prevalent in the southern and southeastern portions of the United States as well as regions of northeastern Australia, southern portions of Europe, and Japan. The algal cells have been identified in samples from sewage, fresh and saltwater, animal feces, and some foods. [2]
Coccidioidomycosis, commonly known as cocci, Valley fever, as well as California fever, desert rheumatism, or San Joaquin Valley fever, is a mammalian fungal disease caused by Coccidioides immitis or Coccidioides posadasii. Coccidioidomycosis is endemic in certain parts of the United States in Arizona, California, Nevada, New Mexico, Texas, Utah, and northern Mexico.
Leishmaniasis is a wide array of clinical manifestations caused by parasites of the Trypanosomatida genus Leishmania. It is generally spread through the bite of phlebotomine sandflies, Phlebotomus and Lutzomyia, and occurs most frequently in the tropics and sub-tropics of Africa, Asia, the Americas, and southern Europe. The disease can present in three main ways: cutaneous, mucocutaneous, or visceral. The cutaneous form presents with skin ulcers, while the mucocutaneous form presents with ulcers of the skin, mouth, and nose. The visceral form starts with skin ulcers and later presents with fever, low red blood cell count, and enlarged spleen and liver.
Cryptococcosis is a potentially fatal fungal infection of mainly the lungs, presenting as a pneumonia, and brain, where it appears as a meningitis. Cough, difficulty breathing, chest pain and fever are seen when the lungs are infected. When the brain is infected, symptoms include headache, fever, neck pain, nausea and vomiting, light sensitivity and confusion or changes in behavior. It can also affect other parts of the body including skin, where it may appear as several fluid-filled nodules with dead tissue.
Blastomycosis, also known as Gilchrist's disease, is a fungal infection, typically of the lungs, which can spread to brain, stomach, intestine and skin, where it appears as crusting purplish warty plaques with a roundish bumpy edge and central depression. Only about half of people with the disease have symptoms, which can include fever, cough, night sweats, muscle pains, weight loss, chest pain, and feeling tired. Symptoms usually develop between three weeks and three months after breathing in the spores. In 25% to 40% of cases, the infection also spreads to other parts of the body, such as the skin, bones or central nervous system. Although blastomycosis is especially dangerous for those with weak immune systems, most people diagnosed with blastomycosis have healthy immune systems.
Chromoblastomycosis is a long-term fungal infection of the skin and subcutaneous tissue.
Protothecosis, otherwise known as Algaemia, is a disease found in dogs, cats, cattle, and humans caused by a type of green alga known as Prototheca that lacks chlorophyll and enters the human or animal bloodstream. It and its close relative Helicosporidium are unusual in that they are actually green algae that have become parasites. The two most common species are Prototheca wickerhamii and Prototheca zopfii. Both are known to cause disease in dogs, while most human cases are caused by P. wickerhami. Prototheca is found worldwide in sewage and soil. Infection is rare despite high exposure, and can be related to a defective immune system. In dogs, females and Collies are most commonly affected.
Candida glabrata is a species of haploid yeast of the genus Candida, previously known as Torulopsis glabrata. Despite the fact that no sexual life cycle has been documented for this species, C. glabrata strains of both mating types are commonly found. C. glabrata is generally a commensal of human mucosal tissues, but in today's era of wider human immunodeficiency from various causes, C. glabrata is often the second or third most common cause of candidiasis as an opportunistic pathogen. Infections caused by C. glabrata can affect the urogenital tract or even cause systemic infections by entrance of the fungal cells in the bloodstream (Candidemia), especially prevalent in immunocompromised patients.
Prepatellar bursitis is an inflammation of the prepatellar bursa at the front of the knee. It is marked by swelling at the knee, which can be tender to the touch and which generally does not restrict the knee's range of motion. It can be extremely painful and disabling as long as the underlying condition persists.
Olecranon bursitis is a condition characterized by swelling, redness, and pain at the tip of the elbow. If the underlying cause is due to an infection, fever may be present. The condition is relatively common and is one of the most frequent types of bursitis.
Leishmania major is a species of parasite found in the genus Leishmania, and is associated with the disease zoonotic cutaneous leishmaniasis. L. major is an intracellular pathogen which infects the macrophages and dendritic cells of the immune system. Though Leishmania species are found on every continent aside from Antarctica, Leishmania major is found only in the Eastern Hemisphere, specifically in Northern Africa, the Middle East, Northwestern China, and Northwestern India.
Prototheca is a genus of algae in the family Chlorellaceae. All the species within this genus, even though classified as green algae, have forfeited their photosynthetic ability and have switched to parasitism. Some species can cause the disease protothecosis, otherwise known as Algaemia.
Protozoan infections are parasitic diseases caused by organisms formerly classified in the kingdom Protozoa. They are usually contracted by either an insect vector or by contact with an infected substance or surface and include organisms that are now classified in the supergroups Excavata, Amoebozoa, SAR, and Archaeplastida.
Amoebiasis, or amoebic dysentery, is an infection of the intestines caused by a parasitic amoeba Entamoeba histolytica. Amoebiasis can be present with no, mild, or severe symptoms. Symptoms may include lethargy, loss of weight, colonic ulcerations, abdominal pain, diarrhea, or bloody diarrhea. Complications can include inflammation and ulceration of the colon with tissue death or perforation, which may result in peritonitis. Anemia may develop due to prolonged gastric bleeding.
Prototheca wickerhamii is a ubiquitous green alga that does not have chlorophyll. It is widely present in the environment but is a rare cause of infection in humans (protothecosis) and most commonly presents as nodules of the skin. Most cases reported have a suppressed immune system. Infection usually results by direct traumatic inoculation.
In biology, a pathogen, in the oldest and broadest sense, is any organism or agent that can produce disease. A pathogen may also be referred to as an infectious agent, or simply a germ.
Apophysomyces variabilis is an emerging fungal pathogen that can cause serious and sometimes fatal infection in humans. This fungus is a soil-dwelling saprobe with tropical to subtropical distribution. It is a zygomycete that causes mucormycosis, an infection in humans brought about by fungi in the order Mucorales. Infectious cases have been reported globally in locations including the Americas, Southeast Asia, India, and Australia. Apophysomyces variabilis infections are not transmissible from person to person.
Phaeohyphomycosis is a diverse group of fungal infections, caused by dematiaceous fungi whose morphologic characteristics in tissue include hyphae, yeast-like cells, or a combination of these. It can be associated an array of melanistic filamentous fungi including Alternaria species,Exophiala jeanselmei, and Rhinocladiella mackenziei.
Prototheca zopfii is aerobic, unicellular, yeast-like, achlorophyllic microalga.
Histoplasma duboisii is a saprotrophic fungus responsible for the invasive infection known as African histoplasmosis. This species is a close relative of Histoplasma capsulatum, the agent of classical histoplasmosis, and the two occur in similar habitats. Histoplasma duboisii is restricted to continental Africa and Madagascar, although scattered reports have arisen from other places usually in individuals with an African travel history. Like, H. capsulatum, H. duboisii is dimorphic – growing as a filamentous fungus at ambient temperature and a yeast at body temperature. It differs morphologically from H. capsulatum by the typical production of a large-celled yeast form. Both agents cause similar forms of disease, although H. duboisii predominantly causes cutaneous and subcutaneous disease in humans and non-human primates. The agent responds to many antifungal drug therapies used to treat serious fungal diseases.
Chlorellosis is a disease caused by the infection of Chlorella, a type of microalgae containing large amount of chloroplasts. It is mainly found in sheep and cattle, while cases in humans, dogs, antelopes, beavers, camels and fish, were also reported. Symptoms of Chlorellosis including focal cutaneous lesions, lymphadenitis, and peritonitis.