| Rhinella proboscidea | |
|---|---|
 | |
Scientific classification  | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Amphibia |
| Order: | Anura |
| Family: | Bufonidae |
| Genus: | Rhinella |
| Species: | R. proboscidea |
| Binomial name | |
| Rhinella proboscidea (Spix, 1824) | |
| Synonyms | |
| |
Rhinella proboscidea is a species of small South American toad in the family Bufonidae, common in the Amazon rainforest. It is the only species known to practice reproductive necrophilia. [2]
The specific name derives from the Latin proboscis (elephant trunk), in recognition of the toad's prominent beak. It is a member of the R. margaritifera species complex. [3]
The species was first described under the name Bufo proboscideus by Johann Baptist von Spix in 1824. [4] Spix collected the holotype specimen near the Solimões River during his journey to Brazil. It is now held by the Zoologische Staatssammlung München. [5]
In 2006, members of the Bufo margaritifera complex were recognized as the new genus Rhinella , leading to the current name. [6] The merge of another genus into Rhinella left a different species sharing this name (homonymy), which was resolved by renaming the other species Rhinella boulengeri (now Dendrophryniscus proboscideus ). [7] [8]
This toad is found in Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and intermittent freshwater marshes. It is threatened by habitat loss. [1] It is common in parts of the Amazon rainforest. [3]
Males are 46–54 mm with smooth skin, while females are 46–55 mm with granular skin. The dorsal surface is reddish or dark brown, and typically spattered with black and brown patches. It has a triangular head with a pointed snout, and a brown to gray belly. [9]
This toad is mostly active during the day, sleeping on small seedlings and shrubs at night, [3] but shows nocturnal activity during the breeding period. [10] Its tadpoles are light brown and similar to other R. margaritifera tadpoles. [3] The skin is highly toxic, [11] but predation by a snake ( Xenoxybelis argenteus ) has nonetheless been observed. [12]
This species is an explosive breeder that reproduces in shallow pools off the edge of streams. [3] The toads gather in these locations for two or three days, where they collectively fertilize thousands of eggs. [2] A typical reproductive period is from March to May, but it could vary depending on rainfall. [3] After heavy rain, choruses of as many as 100 male R. proboscidea calling for a mate have been heard. [3]
Males breed aggressively, approaching any nearby toad and attempting to steal mates from other males already in amplexus. These struggles sometimes result in the female being suffocated. [3] The dead females may be subjected to necrophilia. Males use their front and hind limbs to squeeze the sides of the corpse's belly until oocytes are ejected. The oocytes are then fertilized. In one study, this behavior was observed in five different males. The researchers suggested that the necrophilia was a reproductive strategy, offsetting the fitness cost of the female's death. This would make R. proboscidea the only species known to practice reproductively functional, rather than accidental, necrophilia. [2]
The cane toad, also known as the giant neotropical toad or marine toad, is a large, terrestrial true toad native to South and mainland Central America, but which has been introduced to various islands throughout Oceania and the Caribbean, as well as Northern Australia. It is a member of the genus Rhinella, which includes many true toad species found throughout Central and South America, but it was formerly assigned to the genus Bufo.
Bufo is a genus of true toads in the amphibian family Bufonidae. As traditionally defined, it was a wastebasket genus containing a large number of toads from much of the world but following taxonomic reviews most of these have been moved to other genera, leaving only seventeen extant species from Europe, northern Africa and Asia in this genus, including the well-known common toad. Some of the genera that contain species formerly placed in Bufo are Anaxyrus, Bufotes, Duttaphrynus, Epidalea and Rhinella.
A true toad is any member of the family Bufonidae, in the order Anura. This is the only family of anurans in which all members are known as toads, although some may be called frogs. The bufonids now comprise more than 35 genera, Bufo being the best known.
Dendrophryniscus is a genus of true toads in the family Bufonidae, sometimes known as tree toads. They are endemic to the Atlantic Forest of Brazil.
Fowler's toad is a species of toad in the family Bufonidae. The species is native to North America, where it occurs in much of the eastern United States and parts of adjacent Canada. It was previously considered a subspecies of Woodhouse's toad.
Rhinella chrysophora, sometimes known as the Rio Viejo toad, is a species of toad in the family Bufonidae. It is endemic to the Cordillera Nombre de Dios on the Atlantic versant in north-central Honduras.
Rhinella arborescandens is a species of toad in the family Bufonidae. It is endemic to Peru and only known from its type locality near Mendoza, northern Cordillera Central, in the Amazonas Region. It is unusual among Rhinella toads because it is arboreal, hence the specific name arborescandens, derived from Latin arbor for tree and scando meaning to climb.
Rhinella humboldti is a species of toad in the family Bufonidae. It is found in Colombia, Venezuela, Trinidad, and the Guianas. This species was originally considered to be a subspecies of Rhinella granulosa.
Rhinella crucifer is a species of toad in the family Bufonidae. It endemic to Brazil and known from the Atlantic Forest of eastern Brazil between the states of Ceará in the north and Rio de Janeiro in the south. Common name striped toad has been coined for it. "Rhinella pombali" is a hybrid between Rhinella ornata and this species.
Rhinella dorbignyi is a South American species of toad in the family Bufonidae. The specific name, dorbignyi, is in honor of French naturalist Alcide d'Orbigny. Its common name is d'Orbigny's toad or Dorbigny's toad [sic].
Rhinella granulosa, also known as granular toad and common lesser toad, is a species of toad in the family Bufonidae. The species was redelimited in 2009 and is now considered endemic to Brazil.
Peltophryne guentheri, the southern crested toad or Gunther's Caribbean toad, is a species of toad in the family Bufonidae. It is endemic to Hispaniola and found in the lowlands of Haiti and the Dominican Republic.
Rhinella icterica is a species of toad in the family Bufonidae that is found in northeastern Argentina, southern Brazil, and eastern Paraguay. "Cururu" is its indigenous name and refers to the male advertisement call that is a melodious tremolo. "Cururu toad", without the specifier "yellow", is a common name used for a few other closely related species.
Rhinella jimi is a species of toads in the family Bufonidae. It is endemic to northeastern Brazil and known between Bujaru in northeastern Pará and Maranhão in the north, south to Bahia and Vitória, Espírito Santo. Prior to its description in 2002, it was confused with Rhinella schneideri. The specific name jimi honors Jorge Jim, a Brazilian herpetologist. Common name Jimi's toad has been coined for it.
The South American common toad is a species complex of toads in the family Bufonidae. They are found throughout the Amazonian South America and eastern Panama. It was originally believed to be a single species, but is now known to represent a complex of more than one.
Dendrophryniscus berthalutzae is a species of toad in the family Bufonidae. It is endemic to southeastern Brazil where it is found in the coastal plain of Santa Catarina and Paraná states.
Dendrophryniscus proboscideus is a species of toad in the family Bufonidae. It is endemic to Southeastern Brazil and known from isolated records in fragments of Atlantic Forest in eastern Bahia and northeastern Minas Gerais states.
Rhinella, commonly known as South American toads, beaked toads or Rio Viejo toads, is a genus of true toads native to Neotropical parts of Mexico, Central and South America. Additionally, the cane toad has been Introduced to Australia, the Caribbean, the Philippines and elsewhere.
The golden toad is an extinct species of true toad that was once abundant in a small, high-altitude region of about 4 square kilometres (1.5 sq mi) in an area north of the city of Monteverde, Costa Rica. It was endemic to elfin cloud forest. Also called the Monte Verde toad, Alajuela toad and orange toad, it is commonly considered the "poster child" for the amphibian decline crisis. This toad was first described in 1966 by herpetologist Jay Savage. The last sighting of a single male golden toad was on 15 May 1989, and it has since been classified as extinct by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).
Bufotes, the Eurasian green toads or Palearctic green toads, is a genus of true toads. They are native to Europe, western and central Asia and northern Africa; a region roughly equalling the western and central Palearctic. Historically they were included in the genus Bufo and then for a few years placed in Pseudepidalea, which is a synonym of the currently accepted name Bufotes.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)