Scolt Head Island

Last updated
Scolt Head Island
Scolt Head Island from Gun Hill - geograph.org.uk - 428610.jpg
From Gun Hill
Norfolk UK location map.svg
Red pog.svg
Scolt Head Island
Geography
Coordinates 52°58′56″N0°42′24″E / 52.9822°N 0.7066°E / 52.9822; 0.7066
Administration
England
Region Norfolk
County King's Lynn and West Norfolk

Scolt Head Island is an offshore barrier island between Brancaster and Wells-next-the-Sea in north Norfolk. It is in the parish of Burnham Norton and is accessed by a seasonal ferry from the village of Overy Staithe. The shingle and sand island appears to have originated from a former spit extending from the coast, and longshore drift means that it is slowly moving to the west and inshore.

Contents

The island comprises sand dunes, salt marsh, intertidal sand and mud flats, and shingle. It supports internationally important numbers of breeding Sandwich and little terns, and nationally significant populations of common and Arctic terns, as well as wintering waders and wildfowl. It has a number of uncommon plants adapted to its harsh environments. It was bought by the National Trust in 1923, and became a national nature reserve. It was subsumed into the North Norfolk Coast SSSI in 1986. The larger area is now additionally protected through Natura 2000, Special Protection Area (SPA) and Ramsar listings, and is part of the Norfolk Coast Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. The first resident first "watcher" (warden) on Scolt Head was pioneering ornithologist and photographer Emma Turner.

This isolated island has been largely undisturbed by human activity apart from service as an artillery range in World War II, and it is of international importance because of the extensive research into its geomorphology over nearly a century.

Description

Scolt Head Island is a roughly 6.5 km (4 mi) long shingle and sand island on the Norfolk coast opposite Burnham Norton. Despite its name, it is possible to walk across the mudflats and Norton Creek to the island at low tide. However this route is potentially dangerous due to shifting and deep mud and rapid tidal changes, and is not recommended by the landowner. Its main beach and ridge of sand dunes run approximately east to west, and it has a series of curved shingle "hooks" running south and east on its landward side. [1] The 737 ha (1820 acres) [2] island is composed almost entirely flint pebbles, mostly rounded by wave action, and sand; other minerals make up less than one per cent of the material. It is gradually extending westwards due to wave action and longshore drift. The curved shingle ridges were formed when each in turn was formerly the western end of the island, and salt marshes have developed between each ridge. [1] Some of the shorter side ridges meet the main ridge at a steep angle due to the southward movement of the latter. [3]

Natural England's designation document states that the shingle spits here and at Blakeney Point are of special importance for the study of geophysical processes, [4] and are the best studied and documented in the world. [2] The salt marsh and shingle structures together are of the highest national importance for investigating the recent geological history of this coast. [4] The salt marshes here develop rapidly due to the inflow of silt and increasing plant growth, increasing in height by about 1 cm (0.4 in) annually, [5] and developing a well-defined creek system as they age. [6]

The island is served by a ferry from Burnham Overy Staithe which runs from April to September, and there is a 1 km (1,100 yd) nature trail with information boards. [2]

History

Norfolk has a long history of human occupation dating back to the Palaeolithic, and including significant archaeology. Both modern and Neanderthal people were present in the area between 100,000 and 10,000 years ago, before the last glaciation, and humans returned as the ice retreated northwards. The archaeological record is poor until about 20,000 years ago, partly because of the then prevailing very cold conditions, but also because the coastline was much further north than at present. As the ice retreated during the Mesolithic (10,000–5,000 BCE), the sea level rose, filling what is now the North Sea. This brought the Norfolk coastline much closer to its present line, so that many ancient sites are now under the sea in an area now known as Doggerland. [7] [8] Early Mesolithic flint tools with characteristic long blades up to 15 cm (5.9 in) [9] long found on the present-day coast at nearby Titchwell Marsh date from a time when it was 60–70 km (37–43 mi) from the sea. Other flint tools have been found dating from the Upper Paleolithic (50,000–10,000 BCE) to the Neolithic (5,000–2,500 BCE). [8] Deposits of peat between layers of marine or salt marsh sediments date from 1980–1780 BC, indicating that the sea had retreated, leaving this area as dry land during that era. [10] Signs of human use of the island range from early medieval Grimston ware pottery to post-World War II building foundations, and wooden structures in the marshes include posts set for mussel farming, and a wooden structure that was probably a fish trap [8]

The wreck of the SS Vina at sunset The Wreck (SS Vina) from Scolt Head Island - geograph.org.uk - 611309.jpg
The wreck of the SS Vina at sunset

It was originally thought that the island, believed to be 2–3 thousand years old, developed from an offshore shingle ridge, and had thus always been an island, but current thinking is that the island was originally a spit extending west from Holkham dunes. Support for this theory comes from boreholes and from radiocarbon dating of a shell to 837AD, that appeared to indicate the existence of saltmarshes behind the shingle barrier at that time. A 1585 map also appears to show a spit at this location, [11] and a 1630 inventory of the lands of Robert of Brancaster, the local Lord of the Manor, did not list the island as a separate entity. [12]

On the death of Simms Reeve, Lord of Brancaster, in 1922, earlier disputes over the ownership of the island were resolved with his executors retaining the southern part, and the Earl of Orford the northern section. The island was bought by the Earl of Leicester in 1922. [12] He sold most of the island to the National Trust in 1923 for £500 to manage as a nature reserve, retaining only a small area at the eastern end. [13] The first resident first "watcher" (warden) on Scolt Head was Emma Turner, who served for eighteen months in 1923–1924. [14] [15] In 1944, Lord Leicester was asked if he would remove five huts on his part of the island, together with others on the coast opposite. He agreed to do so if the Norfolk Naturalists' Trust (NNT) would take over his part of the island. The island was used as an artillery range during World War II, but the NNT purchase took place in 1945. [16]

The SS Vina, an 1894 cargo steamer, was anchored near the west end of the island in 1944 for use as an RAF target where the wreck can still be seen at low tide. [17] The remains of a Blenheim bomber were found at the north of the island in 2004. [8] A steel wreck or hulk measuring around 72m long and 15m wide was also brought to the island during World War II for military target practice. [18]

The Nature Conservancy Council took over responsibility for Scolt Head Island's management in 1953 on a 99-year lease, [12] [16] and it became a national nature reserve in 1967, [19] It was subsumed into the newly created 7,700-hectare (19,000-acre) North Norfolk Coast SSSI in 1986. The larger area is now additionally protected through Natura 2000, Special Protection Area (SPA) and Ramsar listings, and is part of the Norfolk Coast Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. [4]

Fauna and flora

Birds

Internationally important numbers of Sandwich and little terns breed on the island, together with common and Arctic terns The marshes also support wintering wildfowl and waders, including shelduck, wigeon, teal and curlew. [2] brent geese feed on sea lettuce and eelgrass, preferring the former when both are available. [20] The average number of pink-footed geese in the five winters to 2009/10 was 22,764, far exceeding the international importance level of 2,700 birds. [21]

The island's location means that migrants may be found, sometimes in huge numbers when the weather conditions are right. [22] [23] [24] These may include vagrant rarities, [25] such as an isabelline shrike in 2003, [26] a white-billed diver in 2002, [27] and a dusky warbler in 2000. [28]

Other animals and plants

Marram grass-covered dunes Scolt Head Island, marram grass zone - geograph.org.uk - 1384108.jpg
Marram grass-covered dunes

The rabbit population reached eight to ten thousand individuals before the arrival of myxomatosis in 1954 killed all but 12 animals, although numbers increased afterwards. Further outbreaks of the disease have led to fluctuating numbers of rabbits on the island. Other resident mammals include stoats, common shrews, pygmy shrews, wood mice and short-tailed voles. Three species of deer have travelled over the marshes to reach the island. [29]

Insects include the intertidal ground beetle Dicheirotrichus gustavii which emerges from cracks or holes to feed on the salt marshes after dusk. Despite living in a coastal environment, it has no cycle of behaviour linked to the tides, simply scurrying for dry land when caught by the approaching sea. [30] Another intertidal beetle, Bledius spectabilis , shows very unusual behaviour for an insect in that it actively protects its larvae from the parasitic wasp Barycnemis blediator and from the predatory Dicheirotrichus gustavi. [31]

The saltmarsh and the dunes both hold a notably wide range of plants, including a number of uncommon species. The saltmarsh contains glassworts and common cord grass in the most exposed regions, with a succession of plants following on as the marsh becomes more established: first sea aster, then mainly sea lavender, with sea purslane in the creeks and smaller areas of sea plantain and other common marsh plants. The shingle ridges attract biting stonecrop, sea campion, yellow horned poppy, sea thrift, bird's foot trefoil and sea beet. sea wormwood, sea lavender and scrubby sea-blite also thrive, [4] matted sea lavender and sea heath are international important species found in this habitat. [2]

The sand dunes are initially stabilised by marram grass and sea couch grass, enabling colonisation by sea poa grass, sand couch-grass, lyme-grass and grey hair-grass, which also help to bind the sand. Sea holly, sand sedge, bird’s-foot trefoil and pyramidal orchid are other specialists of this arid habitat. [4]

Recreation

Birdwatchers in 1961 Bird watching on Scolt Head Island, Brancaster, Norfolk taken in 1961 - geograph.org.uk - 741316.jpg
Birdwatchers in 1961

Outdoor recreation is important to the economy of north Norfolk, and a 2005 survey at six coastal sites found that 39 per cent of visitors gave birdwatching as the main purpose of their visit. The 7.7 million day visitors and 5.5 million who made overnight stays in the area in 1999 are estimated to have spent £122 million, and created the equivalent of 2,325 full-time jobs. [32] The large number of visitors at coastal sites sometimes has negative effects. Wildlife may be disturbed, a frequent difficulty for species that breed in exposed areas such as ringed plovers and little terns, and also for wintering geese. Plants can be trampled, which is a particular problem in sensitive habitats such as sand dunes and vegetated shingle. [33]

The limited access to the island means that it is not subjected to the pressures of heavy or uncontrolled visitor access. [2] The Norfolk Coast Partnership, a grouping of conservation and environmental bodies, divide the coast and its hinterland into three zones for tourism development purposes. Similar dune systems at Blakeney Point, Holme and Holkham are considered to be sensitive habitats already suffering from visitor pressure, and therefore designated as a red-zone area with no development or parking improvements to be recommended, but Scolt is placed in the orange zone, for locations with fragile habitats but less tourism pressure. [34]

Threats

Storms in 1931–33 swept away 250 m (250 yd) of the island, [1] and the island was breached in a large storm in 1938 and by the North Sea flood of January 1953, in each case washing the shingle through to the marshes beyond. A wire and brushwood fence erected in the spring of 1953 trapped sand and allowed the breach to heal by August of the same year. [35]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Holkham National Nature Reserve</span> Nature reserve in the United Kingdom

Holkham National Nature Reserve is England's largest national nature reserve (NNR). It is on the Norfolk coast between Burnham Overy Staithe and Blakeney, and is managed by Natural England with the cooperation of the Holkham Estate. Its 3,900 hectares comprise a wide range of habitats, including grazing marsh, woodland, salt marsh, sand dunes and foreshore. The reserve is part of the North Norfolk Coast Site of Special Scientific Interest, and the larger area is additionally protected through Natura 2000, Special Protection Area (SPA) and Ramsar listings, and is part of both an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB) and a World Biosphere Reserve. Holkham NNR is important for its wintering wildfowl, especially pink-footed geese, Eurasian wigeon and brant geese, but it also has breeding waders, and attracts many migrating birds in autumn. Many scarce invertebrates and plants can be found in the dunes, and the reserve is one of the only two sites in the UK to have an antlion colony.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Titchwell Marsh</span> Nature reserve in the United Kingdom

Titchwell Marsh is an English nature reserve owned and managed by the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB). Located on the north coast of the county of Norfolk, between the villages of Titchwell and Thornham, about 8 km (5.0 mi) east of the seaside resort of Hunstanton, its 171 hectares include reed beds, saltmarshes, a freshwater lagoon and sandy beach, with a small woodland area near the car park. This internationally important reserve is part of the North Norfolk Coast Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) and the Norfolk Coast Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB), and is also protected through Natura 2000, Special Protection Area (SPA) and Ramsar listings.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gibraltar Point, Lincolnshire</span> Nature reserve on Lincolnshire coast, England

Gibraltar Point national nature reserve is an area of about 4.3 km2 (1.7 sq mi) on the coast of Lincolnshire, England.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Duddon Estuary</span> Estuary and SSSI in the South Lakeland district of Cumbria, England

The Duddon Estuary is the sandy, gritty estuary of the River Duddon that lies between Morecambe Bay and the North Lonsdale coast.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Brancaster</span> Village in Norfolk, England

Brancaster is a village and civil parish on the north coast of the English county of Norfolk. The civil parish of Brancaster comprises Brancaster itself, together with Brancaster Staithe and Burnham Deepdale. The three villages form a more or less continuous settlement along the A149 at the edge of the Brancaster Manor marshland and the Scolt Head Island National Nature Reserve. The villages are located about 3 miles (4.8 km) west of Burnham Market, 22 miles (35 km) north of the town of King's Lynn and 31 miles (50 km) north-west of the city of Norwich. The civil parish has an area of 8.27 square miles (21.4 km2) and in the 2011 census had a population of 797 in 406 households. For the purposes of local government, the parish falls within the district of King's Lynn and West Norfolk. In 2016, Janet Lake, the clerk to Brancaster Parish Council, reached 50 years of service in the post.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Burnham Overy</span> Human settlement in England

Burnham Overy is a civil parish on the north coast of Norfolk, England. In modern times a distinction is often made between the two settlements of Burnham Overy Town, the original village adjacent to the medieval parish church and now reduced to a handful of houses, and Burnham Overy Staithe, a rather larger hamlet about 1-mile (1.6 km) away and next to the creek-side harbour.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Brancaster Staithe</span> Village in Norfolk, England

Brancaster Staithe is a village on the north coast of the English county of Norfolk. Brancaster Staithe merges with Burnham Deepdale, forming one village.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ythan Estuary</span>

The Ythan Estuary is the tidal component of the Ythan River, emptying into the North Sea 19 kilometres (12 mi) north of Aberdeen, Scotland. The estuary’s tidal action extends a 7 kilometres (4.3 mi) inland and has characteristic widths of between 250 metres (820 ft) and 780 metres (2,560 ft). Besides the tidal channel there are interfaces to the upland dunes including mudflats, sand beaches and shingle flats. Reaches of salt marsh occur, but they are primarily near the Waterside Bridge and the mouth of the Tarty Burn, a small tributary river. Based upon the habitat of the moorland bordering the east of the Ythan River near the mouth, this estuary is the most significant coastal moorland in the northern United Kingdom.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Blakeney Point</span> National nature reserve on the north coast of Norfolk, England

Blakeney Point is a national nature reserve situated near to the villages of Blakeney, Morston and Cley next the Sea on the north coast of Norfolk, England. Its main feature is a 6.4 km (4.0 mi) spit of shingle and sand dunes, but the reserve also includes salt marshes, tidal mudflats and reclaimed farmland. It has been managed by the National Trust since 1912, and lies within the North Norfolk Coast Site of Special Scientific Interest, which is additionally protected through Natura 2000, Special Protection Area (SPA), International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and Ramsar listings. The reserve is part of both an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB), and a World Biosphere Reserve. The Point has been studied for more than a century, following pioneering ecological studies by botanist Francis Wall Oliver and a bird ringing programme initiated by ornithologist Emma Turner.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">A149 road</span> Road in Norfolk, linking Kings Lynn and Great Yarmouth

The A149 is commonly known as "The Coast Road" to local residents and tourists, as this road runs along the North Norfolk coast from King's Lynn to Great Yarmouth, via coastal villages.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Norfolk Coast National Landscape</span> Protected area in Norfolk, England

The Norfolk Coast National Landscape or Norfolk Coast Protected Landscape is a protected National Landscape in Norfolk, England. It covers over 450 km2 of coastal and agricultural land from The Wash in the west through coastal marshes and cliffs to the sand dunes at Winterton in the east. It was designated AONB in 1968, under the National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Blakeney Chapel</span> Ruined building on the North Norfolk coast of England

Blakeney Chapel is a ruined building on the coast of North Norfolk, England. Despite its name, it was probably not a chapel, nor is it in the adjoining village of Blakeney, but rather in the parish of Cley next the Sea. The building stood on a raised mound or "eye" on the seaward end of the coastal marshes, less than 200 m (220 yd) from the sea and just to the north of the current channel of the River Glaven where it turns to run parallel to the shoreline. It consisted of two rectangular rooms of unequal size, and appears to be intact in a 1586 map, but is shown as ruins in later charts. Only the foundations and part of a wall still remain. Three archaeological investigations between 1998 and 2005 provided more detail of the construction, and showed two distinct periods of active use. Although it is described as a chapel on several maps, there is no documentary or archaeological evidence to suggest that it had any religious function. A small hearth, probably used for smelting iron, is the only evidence of a specific activity on the site.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nature reserves in the North Norfolk Coast Site of Special Scientific Interest</span> Protected area in Norfolk, England

The North Norfolk Coast Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) is an internationally important protected area in Norfolk, England. The SSSI is a long, narrow strip of coastal land that starts between Old Hunstanton and Holme-next-the-Sea, and runs east for about 43 km (27 mi) to Kelling. The southern boundary runs roughly west to east except where it detours around towns and villages, and never crosses the A149 coast road. It has an area of 7,700 ha (19,027 acres), and is additionally protected through Natura 2000, Special Protection Area (SPA) and Ramsar listings; it is also part of the Norfolk Coast Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB). Scolt Head Island and the coast from the Holkham National Nature Reserve to Salthouse are a Biosphere Reserve.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">North Norfolk Coast Site of Special Scientific Interest</span> Area of European importance for wildlife in Norfolk, England

The North Norfolk Coast Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) is an area of European importance for wildlife in Norfolk, England. It comprises 7,700 ha (19,027 acres) of the county's north coast from just west of Holme-next-the-Sea to Kelling, and is additionally protected through Natura 2000, Special Protection Area (SPA) listings; it is also part of the Norfolk Coast Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB). The North Norfolk Coast is also designated as a wetland of international importance on the Ramsar list and most of it is a Biosphere Reserve.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cley Marshes</span> Nature reserve on the North Sea coast of England

Cley Marshes is a 176-hectare (430-acre) nature reserve on the North Sea coast of England just outside the village of Cley next the Sea, Norfolk. A reserve since 1926, it is the oldest of the reserves belonging to the Norfolk Wildlife Trust (NWT), which is itself the oldest county Wildlife Trust in the United Kingdom. Cley Marshes protects an area of reed beds, freshwater marsh, pools and wet meadows and is part of the North Norfolk Coast Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI), Special Area of Conservation (SAC), Special Protection Area (SPA), and Ramsar Site due to the large numbers of birds it attracts.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Holme Dunes</span> Nature reserve near Holme-next-the-Sea in Norfolk, England

Holme Dunes is a 192-hectare (470-acre) nature reserve near Holme-next-the-Sea in Norfolk. It is managed by the Norfolk Wildlife Trust, and is a National Nature Reserve. It is part of the North Norfolk Coast Site of Special Scientific Interest, Geological Conservation Review site, Nature Conservation Review site, Grade I, Ramsar site, Special Areas of Conservation and Special Protection Area. It is also in the Norfolk Coast Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Brancaster Manor</span> Salt marsh near Brancaster, Norfolk, England

Brancaster Manor is a salt marsh owned by the National Trust near Brancaster, Norfolk, covering 810 ha (2,000 acres). It was originally purchased by the Brancaster Memorial Trust in 1964, and transferred to the National Trust in 1967. It is leased to Brancaster Staithe Fishermen's Society.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Beddmanarch–Cymyran</span> Protected area of Anglesey, Wales

Beddmanarch–Cymyran is a site of special scientific interest (SSSI) on the Welsh island of Anglesey extending to just over 900 hectares, and centred on the Cymyran Strait. It was first notified in 1961 for its coastal botanical and ornithological interest. The site is also a marine protected area as it includes intertidal areas and contains marine components.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dagestan Nature Reserve</span> Nature reserve in Russia

Dagestan Nature Reserve is a Russian 'zapovednik' that protects an area of sand dunes and ridges on the northwest coast of the Caspian Sea in the southeast of European Russia. The reserve, a wintering place for migratory birds, is the richest nature reserve in Russia in terms of the number of species - over 300 species have been recorded in the reserve, its buffer zones and subordinate reserves. The reserve is part of several "Important Bird and Biodiversity Areas" (IBAs). The Sarykum sand dune is the highest sand dune in Europe, at 262 m (860 ft). The reserve is situated in the Tarumovsky District of Dagestan.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hurst Castle and Lymington River Estuary</span>

Hurst Castle and Lymington River Estuary is a 1,077.3-hectare (2,662-acre) biological and geological Site of Special Scientific Interest near Lymington in Hampshire. It is a Nature Conservation Review site and two areas are Geological Conservation Review sites. Three areas are local nature reserves, Boldre Foreshore, Sturt Pond and Lymington and Keyhaven Marshes; the latter site is managed by the Hampshire and Isle of Wight Wildlife Trust. Part of it is North Solent National Nature Reserve. It is part of Solent and Southampton Water Ramsar site and Special Protection Area. Parts of it are in Solent Maritime and Solent and Isle of Wight Lagoons Special Areas of Conservation.

References

  1. 1 2 3 Steers, James Alfred (1934). "Scolt Head Island". Geographical Journal. 83 (6): 479–494. doi:10.2307/1785498.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "Scolt Head Island NNR". Our work. Natural England. Archived from the original on 15 January 2013. Retrieved 26 September 2012.
  3. ↑ Steers, J A in Allison & Morley (1986) p. 19.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 "North Norfolk Coast" (PDF). SSSI citations. Natural England. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 February 2014. Retrieved 8 November 2011.
  5. ↑ Chorley et al (1984) p. 407.
  6. ↑ Allen & Pye (1992) p. 158.
  7. ↑ Coles, Bryony. "The Doggerland project". Research projects. University of Exeter. Retrieved 18 September 2012.
  8. 1 2 3 4 Robertson et al (2005) pp. 9–22.
  9. ↑ Murphy (2009) p. 14.
  10. ↑ Robertson et al (2005) p. 152.
  11. ↑ Shennan (2000) p. 245.
  12. 1 2 3 Rodgers et al (2010 ) p.167–168
  13. ↑ Southwell, Thomas (1924). "Scolt Head Island: a new Norfolk nature reserve". Transactions of the Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists' Society. 11: 327.
  14. ↑ B.B.R. (1940). "Obituary: Miss E. L. Turner". British Birds. 34 (4): 85.
  15. ↑ Haines (2001) p. 310.
  16. 1 2 Steers (1971) p. 1.
  17. ↑ Dowse, Julian. "SS Vina (+1944)". Wreck Site. Retrieved 12 November 2011.
  18. ↑ Robertson et al (2005) p 69.
  19. ↑ Allen & Pye (1992) p. 148.
  20. ↑ Ranwell, D S; Downing, E M (1959). "Brent goose (Branta bernicla (L.)) winter feeding pattern and zostera resources at Scolt Head Island, Norfolk". Animal Behaviour. 7 (1–2): 42–48. doi:10.1016/0003-3472(59)90029-6.
  21. ↑ Holt et al (2011) p. 31–32.
  22. ↑ Elkins (1988) pp. 136–137.
  23. ↑ Newton (2010) pp. 97–98.
  24. ↑ Garnett, Ronald M (1936). "Unusual "hold-up" of spring migrants on the Norfolk coast". British Birds. 30 (3): 58–59.
  25. ↑ Newton (2010) p. 50.
  26. ↑ Rogers, M J and the Rarities Committee (2004). "Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2003". British Birds. 97 (11): 558–625.
  27. ↑ Rogers, M J and the Rarities Committee (2003). "Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2002". British Birds. 96 (11): 542–609.
  28. ↑ Rogers, M J and the Rarities Committee (2001). "Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2000". British Birds. 94 (10): 452–504.
  29. ↑ Foster, W A in Allison & Morley (1986) pp. 85–86.
  30. ↑ Foster, W A (1983). "Activity rhythms and the tide in a saltmarsh beetle Dicheirotrichus gustavi" (PDF). Oecologia. 60: 111–113. doi:10.1007/bf00379328. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-04-01.
  31. ↑ Wyatt, T D; Foster, W A (1989). "Parental Care in the Subsocial Intertidal Beetle, Bledius spectabilis, in Relation to Parasitism by the Ichneumonid Wasp, Barycnemis blediator". Behaviour. 110 (1–4): 76–92. doi:10.1163/156853989x00394.
  32. ↑ Liley (2008) pp. 4–6.
  33. ↑ Liley (2008) pp. 10–14.
  34. ↑ Scott Wilson Ltd (2006) pp. 5–6.
  35. ↑ Packham & Willis (1997) p. 241

Secondary sources

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.