The Arctic tern (Sterna paradisaea) is a tern in the familyLaridae. This bird has a circumpolar breeding distribution covering the Arctic and sub-Arctic regions of Europe (as far south as Brittany), Asia, and North America (as far south as Massachusetts). The species is strongly migratory, seeing two summers each year as it migrates along a convoluted route from its northern breeding grounds to the Antarctic coast for the southern summer and back again about six months later. Recent studies have shown average annual round-trip lengths of about 70,900km (44,100mi) for birds nesting in Iceland and Greenland and about 48,700km (30,300mi) for birds nesting in the Netherlands. These are by far the longest migrations known in the animal kingdom. The Arctic tern nests once every one to three years (depending on its mating cycle).
Arctic terns are medium-sized birds. They have a length of 28–39cm (11–15in) and a wingspan of 65–75cm (26–30in).[3] They are mainly grey and white plumaged, with a red/orange beak and feet, white forehead, a black nape and crown (streaked white), and white cheeks. The grey mantle is 305mm (12.0in), and the scapulae are fringed brown, some tipped white. The upper wing is grey with a white leading edge, and the collar is completely white, as is the rump. The deeply forked tail is whitish, with grey outer webs.
Arctic terns are long-lived birds, with many reaching fifteen to thirty years of age. They eat mainly fish and small marine invertebrates. The species is abundant, with an estimated two million individuals. While the trend in the number of individuals in the species as a whole is not known, exploitation in the past has reduced this bird's numbers in the southern reaches of its ranges.
Etymology
The genus name Sterna is derived from Old English "stearn", "tern".[4] The specific paradisaea is from Late Latinparadisus, "paradise".[5] The Scots names pictarnie,[6]tarrock[7] and their many variants are also believed to be onomatopoeic, derived from the distinctive call.[8] Due to the difficulty in distinguishing the two species, all the informal common names are shared with the common tern.[9]
Distribution and migration
The Arctic tern has a continuous worldwide circumpolar breeding distribution; there are no recognized subspecies. It can be found in coastal regions in cooler temperate parts of North America and Eurasia during the northern summer. During the southern summer, it can be found at sea, reaching the northern edge of the Antarctic ice.[10]
The Arctic tern is famous for its migration; it flies from its Arctic breeding grounds to the Antarctic and back again each year. The shortest distance between these areas is 19,000km (12,000mi). The long journey ensures that this bird sees two summers per year and more daylight than any other creature on the planet.[11] One example of this bird's remarkable long-distance flying abilities involves an Arctic tern ringed as an unfledged chick on the Farne Islands, Northumberland, UK, in the northern summer of 1982 that reached Melbourne, Australia in October, just three months after fledging – a journey of more than 22,000km (14,000mi).[12] Another example is that of a chick ringed in Labrador, Canada, on 23 July 1928. It was found in South Africa four months later.[13]
A 2010 study using tracking devices attached to the birds showed that the above examples are not unusual for the species. In fact, the study showed that previous research had seriously underestimated the annual distances travelled by the Arctic tern. Eleven birds that bred in Greenland or Iceland covered 70,900km (44,100mi) on average in a year, with a maximum of 81,600km (50,700mi).[14] The difference from previous estimates is due to the birds taking meandering courses rather than following a straight route as was previously assumed. The birds follow a somewhat convoluted course in order to take advantage of prevailing winds.[15] The average Arctic tern lives about 30 years and will, based on the above research, travel some 2.4millionkm (1.5millionmi) during its lifetime, the equivalent of a roundtrip from Earth to the Moon more than three times.[16]
A 2013 tracking study of half a dozen Arctic terns breeding in the Netherlands[17] shows average annual migrations of c. 48,700km (30,300mi). On their way south, these birds roughly followed the coastlines of Europe and Africa.[18]
Arctic terns usually migrate sufficiently far offshore that they are rarely seen from land outside the breeding season.[19]
Description and taxonomy
Juvenile
The Arctic tern is a medium-sized bird around 33–36cm (13–14in) from the tip of its beak to the tip of its tail. The wingspan is 76–85cm (30–33in).[19] The weight is 86–127g (3.0–4.5oz). The beak is dark red, as are the short legs and webbed feet. Like most terns, the Arctic tern has high aspect ratio wings and a tail with a deep fork.[19]
The adult plumage is grey above, with a black nape and crown and white cheeks. The upperwings are pale grey, with the area near the wingtip being translucent. The tail is white, and the underparts pale grey. Both sexes are similar in appearance. The winter plumage is similar, but the crown is whiter and the bills are darker.[19]
Juveniles differ from adults in their black bill and legs, "scaly" appearing wings, and mantle with dark feather tips, dark carpal wing bar, and short tail streamers.[19] During their first summer, juveniles also have a whiter forecrown.[20]
The species has a variety of calls; the two most common being the alarm call, made when possible predators (such as humans or other mammals) enter the colonies, and the advertising call.[21]
While the Arctic tern is similar to the common and roseate terns, its colouring, profile, and call are slightly different. Compared to the common tern, it has a longer tail and mono-coloured bill, while the main differences from the roseate are its slightly darker colour and longer wings. The Arctic tern's call is more nasal and rasping than that of the common, and is easily distinguishable from that of the roseate.[22]
This bird's closest relatives are a group of South Polar species, the South American (Sterna hirundinacea), Kerguelen (S. virgata), and Antarctic (S. vittata) terns.[23]
The immature plumages of Arctic tern were originally described as separate species, Sterna portlandica and Sterna pikei.[24]
Breeding begins around the third or fourth year.[25] Arctic terns mate for life and, in most cases, return to the same colony each year.[26]Courtship is elaborate, especially in birds nesting for the first time.[27] Courtship begins with a so-called "high flight", where a female will chase the male to a high altitude and then slowly descend. This display is followed by "fish flights", where the male will offer fish to the female. Courtship on the ground involves strutting with a raised tail and lowered wings. After this, both birds will usually fly and circle each other.[27]
Both sexes agree on a site for a nest, and both will defend the site. During this time, the male continues to feed the female. Mating occurs shortly after this.[27] Breeding takes place in colonies on coasts, islands and occasionally inland on tundra near water. It often forms mixed flocks with the common tern. It lays from one to three eggs per clutch, most often two.[19]
It is one of the most aggressive terns, fiercely defensive of its nest and young. It will attack humans and large predators, usually striking the top or back of the head. Although it is too small to cause serious injury to an animal of a human's size, it is still capable of drawing blood, and is capable of repelling many raptorial birds, polar bears[28] and smaller mammalian predators such as foxes and cats.[11]
The nest is usually a depression in the ground, which may or may not be lined with bits of grass or similar materials. The eggs are mottled and camouflaged.[19] Both sexes share incubation duties. The young hatch after 22–27 days and fledge after 21–24 days.[19] If the parents are disturbed and flush from the nest frequently the incubation period could be extended to as long as 34 days.[21]
When hatched, the chicks are downy. Being precocial, the chicks begin to move around and explore their surroundings within one to three days after hatching.[29] Usually they do not stray far from the nest. Chicks are brooded by the adults for the first ten days after hatching.[30] Both parents care for hatchlings.[19] Chick diets always include fish, and parents selectively bring larger prey items to chicks than they eat themselves.[21] Males bring more food than females. Feeding by the parents lasts for roughly a month before being weaned off slowly.[19] After fledging, the juveniles learn to feed themselves, including the difficult method of plunge-diving.[31] They will fly south to winter with the help of their parents.[32]
Arctic terns are long-lived birds that spend considerable time raising only a few young, and are thus said to be K-selected.[33] A 1957 study in the Farne Islands estimated an annual survival rate of 82%.[34]
The diet of the Arctic tern varies depending on location and time, but is usually carnivorous. In most cases, it eats small fish or marine crustaceans.[10][19] Fish species comprise the most important part of the diet, and account for more of the biomass consumed than any other food. Prey species are immature (1–2-year-old) shoaling species such as herring, cod, sandlances, and capelin.[11] Among the marine crustaceans eaten are amphipods, crabs and krill. Sometimes, these birds also eat molluscs, marine worms, or berries, and on their northern breeding grounds, insects.[29]
Arctic terns sometimes dip down to the surface of the water to catch prey close to the surface. They may also chase insects in the air when breeding.[29] It is also thought that Arctic terns may, in spite of their small size, occasionally engage in kleptoparasitism by swooping at birds so as to startle them into releasing their catches.[29] Several species are targeted—conspecifics, other terns (like the common tern), and some auk and grebe species.[21]
While nesting, Arctic terns are vulnerable to predation by cats and other animals.[10] Besides being a competitor for nesting sites, the larger herring gull steals eggs and hatchlings. Camouflaged eggs help prevent this, as do isolated nesting sites.[31] Scientists have experimented with bamboo canes erected around tern nests. Although they found fewer predation attempts in the caned areas than in the control areas, canes did not reduce the probability of predation success per attempt.[35] While feeding, skuas, gulls, and other tern species will often harass the birds and steal their food.[36]
Conservation status
The total population for the arctic tern is estimated at more than twomillion individuals, with more than half of the population in Europe. The breeding range is very large, and although the population is considered to be decreasing, this species is evaluated as a species of least concern by the IUCN.[1] Arctic terns are among the species to which the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds applies.[37]
The population in New England was reduced in the late nineteenth-century because of hunting for the millinery trade.[21] Exploitation continues in western Greenland, where the population of the species has been reduced greatly since 1950.[38] In Iceland, the Arctic tern has been regionally uplisted to Vulnerable as of 2018, due to the crash of sandeel (Ammodytes spp.) stocks.[39]
At the southern part of their range, the Arctic tern has been reducing in numbers. Much of this is due to a lack of food.[20] However, most of these birds' range is extremely remote, with no apparent trend in the species as a whole.[29] The Arctic terns' dispersal pattern is affected by changing climatic conditions,[40] and its ability to feed in its Antarctic wintering is dependent on sea-ice cover, but unlike breeding species, it is able to move to a different area if necessary, and can be used as a control to investigate the effect of climate change on breeding species.[41]
Terns are seabirds in the family Laridae, subfamily Sterninae, that have a worldwide distribution and are normally found near the sea, rivers, or wetlands. Terns are treated in eleven genera in a subgroup of the family Laridae, which also includes several genera of gulls and the skimmers (Rynchops). They are slender, lightly built birds with long, forked tails, narrow wings, long bills, and relatively short legs. Most species are pale grey above and white below with a contrasting black cap to the head, but the marsh terns, the black-bellied tern, the Inca tern, and some noddies have dark body plumage for at least part of the year. The sexes are identical in appearance, but young birds are readily distinguishable from adults. Terns have a non-breeding plumage, which usually involves a white forehead and much-reduced black cap.
The skuas are a group of predatory seabirds with seven species forming the genus Stercorarius, the only genus in the family Stercorariidae. The three smaller skuas, the Arctic skua, the long-tailed skua, and the pomarine skua, are called jaegers in North American English.
The common tern is a seabird in the family Laridae. This bird has a circumpolar distribution, its four subspecies breeding in temperate and subarctic regions of Europe, Asia and North America. It is strongly migratory, wintering in coastal tropical and subtropical regions. Breeding adults have light grey upperparts, white to very light grey underparts, a black cap, orange-red legs, and a narrow pointed bill. Depending on the subspecies, the bill may be mostly red with a black tip or all black. There are several similar species, including the partly sympatric Arctic tern, which can be separated on plumage details, leg and bill colour, or vocalisations.
The Sandwich tern is a tern in the family Laridae. It is very closely related to the lesser crested tern, Chinese crested tern, Cabot's tern, and elegant tern and has been known to interbreed with both elegant and lesser crested. It breeds in the Palearctic from Europe to the Caspian Sea and winters in South Africa, India, and Sri Lanka.
The roseate tern is a species of tern in the family Laridae. The genus name Sterna is derived from Old English "stearn", "tern", and the specific dougallii refers to Scottish physician and collector Dr Peter McDougall (1777–1814). "Roseate" refers to the bird's pink breast in breeding plumage.
The lesser crested tern is a tern in the family Laridae.
Forster's tern is a tern in the family Laridae. The genus name Sterna is derived from Old English "stearn", "tern", and forsteri commemorates the naturalist Johann Reinhold Forster.
The Aleutian tern is a migratory bird living in the subarctic region of the globe most of the year. It is frequently associated with the Arctic tern, which it closely resembles. While both species have a black cap, the Aleutian tern may be distinguished by its white forehead. During breeding season, the Arctic terns have bright red bills, feet, and legs while those of the Aleutian terns are black.
The greater crested tern, also called crested tern or swift tern, is a tern in the family Laridae that nests in dense colonies on coastlines and islands in the tropical and subtropical Old World. Its five subspecies breed in the area from South Africa around the Indian Ocean to the central Pacific and Australia, all populations dispersing widely from the breeding range after nesting. This large tern is closely related to the royal and lesser crested terns, but can be distinguished by its size and bill colour.
The white-fronted tern, also known as tara, sea swallow, black-billed tern, kahawai bird, southern tern, or swallow tail, was first described by Johann Friedrich Gmelin in 1789. A medium-sized tern with an all-white body including underwing and forked tail, with grey hues on the over the upper side of the wing. In breeding adults a striking black cap covers the head from forehead to nape, leaving a small white strip above the black bill.
The least tern is a species of tern that breeds in North America and locally in northern South America. It is closely related to, and was formerly often considered conspecific with, the little tern of the Old World. Other close relatives include the yellow-billed tern and Peruvian tern, both from South America.
The black-bellied tern is a tern found near large rivers in the Indian subcontinent, its range extending from Pakistan, Nepal and India to Myanmar. It has become very scarce in the eastern part of its range and the International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed its conservation status as being endangered.
The Antarctic tern is a seabird in the family Laridae. It ranges throughout the southern oceans and is found on small islands around Antarctica as well as on the shores of the mainland. Its diet consists primarily of small fish and crustaceans. It is very similar in appearance to the closely related Arctic tern, but it is stockier, and it is in its breeding plumage in the southern summer, when the Arctic tern has shed old feathers to get its non-breeding plumage. The Antarctic tern does not migrate like the Arctic tern does, but it can still be found on a very large range. This tern species is actually more closely related to the South American tern.
The South American tern is a species of tern found in coastal regions of southern South America, including the Falkland Islands, ranging north to Peru and Brazil. It is generally the most common tern in its range. The smaller, highly migratory common tern closely resembles it. The specific epithet refers to the "swallow-like" forked tail feathering.
1 2 Howell, Steve N.G.; Jaramillo, Alvaro (2006). Alderfer, Jonathan (ed.). National Geographic Complete Birds of North America. National Geographic Society. pp.272–273. ISBN0-7922-4175-4.
1 2 3 4 5 Hatch, J.J. (2002). Poole, A.; Gill, F. (eds.). Arctic Tern (Sterna paradisaea). Philadelphia, PA.: The Birds of North America. p.707.
↑ Olson, Klaus Malling; Larsson, Hans (1995). Terns of Europe and North America. Princeton University Press. ISBN0-7136-4056-1.
↑ Boothby, Claire; Redfern, Chris; Schroeder, Julia (2019). "An evaluation of canes as a management technique to reduce predation by gulls of ground-nesting seabirds". Ibis. 161 (2): 453–458. doi:10.1111/ibi.12702. hdl:10044/1/66825. ISSN1474-919X. S2CID92479448.
↑ Hansen, K. (2001). "Threats to wildlife in Greenland". Seabird Group Newsletter. 89: 1–2.
↑ Skarphéðinsson, Kristinn Haukur (October 2018). "Kría (Sterna paradisaea)"[Arctic Tern] (in Icelandic). Icelandic Institute of Natural History. Archived from the original on 22 April 2019. Retrieved 22 April 2019.
↑ Gibbons, Chris. "Arctic Tern stamps". Archived from the original on 28 September 2006. Retrieved 24 August 2006.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
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