Southern stingray

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Southern stingray
Dasyatis americana SI.jpg
Dasyatis americana SI2.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Chondrichthyes
Superorder: Batoidea
Order: Myliobatiformes
Family: Dasyatidae
Genus: Hypanus
Species:
H. americanus
Binomial name
Hypanus americanus
Dasyatis americana rangemap.png
Range of the southern stingray
Synonyms
  • Dasyatis americanaHildebrand & Schroeder, 1928

The southern stingray (Hypanus americanus) is a whiptail stingray found in tropical and subtropical waters of the Western Atlantic Ocean from New Jersey to southern Brazil. [2] It has a flat, diamond-shaped disc, with a mud brown, olive, and grey dorsal surface and white underbelly (ventral surface). [3] The barb on its tail is serrated and covered in a venomous mucus, used for self-defense.

Contents

Description

Southern stingray Dasyatis americana .jpg
Southern stingray
Jaws Dasyatis americana jaws.jpg
Jaws

The southern stingray is adapted for life on the sea bed. Its flattened, diamond-shaped body is more angular than other rays. [4] The top of the body varies between olive brown and green in adults, dark grey in juveniles, whilst the underside is white. [4] [5] The wing-like pectoral fins are used to propel the stingray across the ocean bottom, whilst the slender tail possesses a long, serrated and venomous spine at the base, used for defence. [6] These spines are not fatal to humans, but are incredibly painful if stepped on. The eyes are situated on top of the head of the southern stingray, along with small openings called spiracles. The location of the spiracles enables the stingray to take in water whilst lying on the seabed, or when partially buried in sediment. Water enters the spiracles and leaves through the gill openings, bypassing the mouth which is on the underside. [4] [6] Female stingrays can grow to a disc width of 150 centimetres (59 in), while the smaller male stingrays reach a maximum size of 67 centimetres (26 in). [7] [8]

Behavior

Southern stingrays are nocturnal predators, who spray water from their mouths or flap their fins vigorously to disturb the substrate and expose hidden prey. This bottom-dwelling species is often found singly or in pairs, and can reach population densities estimated up to 245 per square kilometre (630/sq mi) in certain shallow systems thought to be nursery grounds. [9] Hypanus americanus exhibit wave-like locomotion using their pectoral fins. This wave-like motion is important for Hypanus americanus because it allows them to escape predators, forage efficiently, and generally maneuver quickly. Typically, they travel large distances and their foraging area is very expansive. One study provided observations that Hypanus americanus swim along the tide, because of the greater food availability along tides. Hypanus americanus are able to do this because of their high maneuverability and efficient wave-like locomotion. Hypanus americanus either remain solitary or form groups. Groups of Hypanus americanus are usually observed when they mate, for predator protection or even when they are just resting. [10] [11] [12] [13] [14]

Foraging

Southern stingray lying on the sea bed SStringray.jpg
Southern stingray lying on the sea bed

When scientists revealed the contents of the stomach of one Hypanus americanus, they found evidence of a great variety of ingested prey, including small fishes, worms, crustaceans and bivalves. [15] As mentioned earlier in this article, the Hypanus americanus are smooth and efficient swimmers, allowing them to capture a variety of mobile as well as sessile prey. They are opportunistic feeders and continuous foragers. [16]

Predation

A venomous spine near the base of the tail Dasyatis americana 9zz.jpg
A venomous spine near the base of the tail

To avoid predators, Hypanus americanus bury themselves in substrate. Venomous spines on the tail are used to repel predators, including humans and great hammerhead sharks. [17] [18]

Roles within their ecosystems

In shallow waters, there is a commensal foraging relationship between Hypanus americanus fish and Nannopterum auritum birds in coastal areas generally like the Gulf of Mexico. When foraging, the Hypanus americanus dig through the substrate in search of food; however, this also helps to expose certain other fish hidden in the substrate after which the Nannopterum auritum will follow behind the Hypanus americanus and eat. [19] [20] [21] [22] [23] [24]

Reproduction

Southern stingray mother and pups Dasyatis americana 1 - 2005.11.06.jpg
Southern stingray mother and pups

Hypanus americanus are ovoviviparous. Fertilized eggs develop inside the mother's body. The embryos receive nutrients from the yolk sack early in development. After the yolk sac is absorbed, the embryos obtain nutrients from the histotroph (the mother's uterine milk). Females reproduce annually. This species gives live birth after a pregnancy which usually lasts between seven and eight months. [25] Parental care ceases once the young are born. In captivity, gestation lasted 135 to 226 days, after which a litter of two to ten young were born. [7]

There is little knowledge or published evidence about the mating systems of Hypanus americanus. Mating stingrays are rarely encountered in the wild. One study, however, does provide detailed observations of Hypanus americanus mating. This study involves observations of one female mating with two males. The study mentions that the female was chased by the two males, with one of the male's biting (or "catching") the female's fin and releasing her after copulation. Females have the ability to mate again soon after giving birth. [26]

Sexual maturity and nursery type

A young Southern stingray Dasyatis americana (southern stingray) (San Salvador Island, Bahamas) 7 (16152781622).jpg
A young Southern stingray

Geographical location plays a large role in the age of sexual maturity. Observations from studies of breeding behavior (of Hypanus americanus during August at Bimini, Bahamas, and early September in Grand Cayman, Cayman Islands). One study shows that when females were placed in captivity, they were considered mature when they were impregnated (around 5 or 6 years old). In this case, males who were 3 or 4 years old were considered to be mature. There is also a difference in the rate at which the females bear young, depending on whether they are raised in captive natural environments or in natural environments. Females raised in captivity bear offspring twice a year, and females that are raised in the wild bear offspring once a year. In addition, there is a positive correlation between the size of the mother and the number of offspring. [26] There is a difference in nurseries for where the Hypanus americanus offspring are raised: there are primary and secondary nurseries which have a clear distinction. The primary nursery is defined as a habitat where a female Hypanus americanus gives birth to her young. On the other hand, the secondary nursery is a habitat where the juvenile Hypanus americanus are raised to mature adults. Little evidence about locations of and migrations between the primary and secondary nurseries is known. An example of a primary nursery is in Belize, where Hypanus americanus females pay seasonal visits for the purposes of mating and giving birth to offspring. During one study, juvenile Hypanus americanus were caught by scientists at 10 to 20 m depths on rock reef surfaces nearby during the months of May, November and December. This specific location of where these juvenile Hypanus americanus were collected was believed to be a secondary nursery. [7] [27]

Communication

Studies of Hypanus americanus have shown that they communicate through pheromone signaling. Males communicate with females before copulating by touching and biting the females. Also, after the female gives birth, she releases pheromones that are most likely believed to be produced in her cloaca; one study reported that the birth of offspring attracted males. As previously mentioned in the article, since a female has the ability to mate soon after giving birth, it is plausible that these are sex pheromones. The role of pheromones in communication also make sense since Hypanus americanus have strong senses of smell. They have many Ampullae of Lorenzini, usually heavily concentrated around the head. In addition, this gives them the ability to sense certain electric fields which are emitted from hidden prey. In addition, they have special mechanisms for senses vibrations in the water as well as for hearing. [26] [28]

Human interaction

Numerous southern stingrays circling a diver at Grand Cayman Stingray CIty in Grand Cayman.jpg
Numerous southern stingrays circling a diver at Grand Cayman
A southern stingray terrifies visitors at the touch pool within the Georgia Aquarium's Georgia Explorer exhibit Offering sacrifies to the dark sea god (3568935438).jpg
A southern stingray terrifies visitors at the touch pool within the Georgia Aquarium's Georgia Explorer exhibit

In many parts of the Caribbean such as Grand Cayman, Cayman Islands and Antigua, the southern stingray swims with divers and snorkelers, and are hand fed at locations such as Stingray City and the Sandbar. [13] On Turks & Caicos, they can be hand fed at a location called Gibbs Cay. Some have become tame enough to be cradled in visitors' arms and feed with pieces of cut up fish. This docile and food-reward driven behaviour has led to many locals comparing the hand-fed and belly-rubbed stingray to an over-fed household canine. There are concerns that this feeding, and the high levels of interaction with humans, may be having some negative impacts on their behaviour and ecology. [29]

The southern stingray may make its way into the aquarium trade. Despite its relative hardiness, it is best avoided as it requires an immense 4,200 gallon capacity system and will devour any fish or invertebrate it is able to capture. [30] They are also housed within public aquariums and animal theme parks including Six Flags Discovery Kingdom in Vallejo, California and the Long Island Aquarium in Riverhead, New York where visitors are allowed to pet the rays in a touch pool. [31] [32] In public aquariums, female southern stingrays have been seen biting one another on the edges of their fins. Reproduction has also been known to occur within large public aquariums. [30]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stingray</span> Suborder of fishes

Stingrays are a group of sea rays, which are cartilaginous fish related to sharks. They are classified in the suborder Myliobatoidei of the order Myliobatiformes and consist of eight families: Hexatrygonidae, Plesiobatidae, Urolophidae (stingarees), Urotrygonidae, Dasyatidae, Potamotrygonidae, Gymnuridae and Myliobatidae . There are about 220 known stingray species organized into 29 genera.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Short-tail stingray</span> Species of cartilaginous fish

The short-tail stingray or smooth stingray is a common species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae. It occurs off southern Africa, typically offshore at a depth of 180–480 m (590–1,570 ft), and off southern Australia and New Zealand, from the intertidal zone to a depth of 156 m (512 ft). It is mostly bottom-dwelling in nature and can be found across a range of habitats from estuaries to reefs, but also frequently will swim into open water. One of the largest stingrays in the world, this heavy-bodied species can grow upwards of 2.1 m (6.9 ft) across and 350 kg (770 lb) in weight. Its plain-colored, diamond-shaped pectoral fin disc is characterized by a lack of dermal denticles even in adults, and white pores beside the head on either side. The body can have colors as well as dark grey or black with rows of white spots along each wing. Its tail is usually shorter than the disc and thick at the base. It is armed with large tubercles and a midline row of large thorns in front of the stinging spine which has the dorsal and ventral fin folds behind.

<i>Dasyatis</i> Genus of cartilaginous fishes

Dasyatis is a genus of stingray in the family Dasyatidae that is native to the Atlantic, including the Mediterranean. In a 2016 taxonomic revision, many of the species formerly assigned to Dasyatis were reassigned to other genera.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Longtail stingray</span> Species of cartilaginous fish

The longtail stingray, is a species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae, found in the eastern Pacific Ocean from Baja California to Colombia. It inhabits sandy habitats down to a depth of 90 m (300 ft). Measuring up to 1.56 m (5.1 ft) across, this species has a rhomboid pectoral fin disc, a lower fin fold on the tail, and numerous dermal denticles along the back and behind the stinging spine. The longtail stingray feeds mainly on bottom-dwelling bony fishes and crustaceans. It is aplacental viviparous, with females giving birth to 1–5 young in late summer. It is caught for food, likely throughout its range, but specific fishery data is lacking.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bluespotted ribbontail ray</span> Species of cartilaginous fish

The bluespotted ribbontail ray is a species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae. Found from the intertidal zone to a depth of 30 m (100 ft), this species is common throughout the tropical Indian and western Pacific Oceans in nearshore, coral reef-associated habitats. It is a fairly small ray, not exceeding 35 cm (14 in) in width, with a mostly smooth, oval pectoral fin disc, large protruding eyes, and a relatively short and thick tail with a deep fin fold underneath. It can be easily identified by its striking color pattern of many electric blue spots on a yellowish background, with a pair of blue stripes on the tail.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Atlantic stingray</span> Species of cartilaginous fish

The Atlantic stingray is a species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae, common along the Atlantic coast of North America from Chesapeake Bay to Mexico, including brackish and freshwater habitats. It may be distinguished from other stingrays in the area by its relatively elongated snout. This species is of little commercial importance, other than for sale in the aquarium industry.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kuhl's maskray</span> Species of cartilaginous fish

Kuhl's maskray, also known as the blue-spotted stingray, blue-spotted maskray, or Kuhl's stingray, is a species of stingray of the family Dasyatidae. It was recently changed from Dasyatis kuhlii in 2008 after morphological and molecular analyses showed that it is part of a distinct genus, Neotrygon. The body is rhomboidal and colored green with blue spots. Maximum disk width is estimated 46.5 cm (18.3 in). It is popular in aquaria, but usually not distinguished from the blue-spotted ribbontail ray. The ribbontail has a rounded body, is a brighter green with brighter blue and more vivid spots, but Kuhl's maskray is larger. The stingray's lifespan is estimated at 13 years for females and 10 years for males. The blue-spotted stingray preys on many fish and small mollusks. It is also generally found from Indonesia to Japan, and most of Australia. Kuhl's maskray also is targeted by many parasites, such as tapeworms, flatworms, and flukes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Plain maskray</span> Species of cartilaginous fish

The plain maskray or brown stingray, is a species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae. It is found in shallow, soft-bottomed habitats off northern Australia. Reaching 24 cm (9.4 in) in width, this species has a diamond-shaped, grayish green pectoral fin disc. Its short, whip-like tail has alternating black and white bands with fin folds above and below. There are short rows of thorns on the back and the base of the tail, but otherwise the skin is smooth. While this species possesses the dark mask-like pattern across its eyes common to its genus, it is not ornately patterned like other maskrays.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Diamond stingray</span> Species of cartilaginous fish

The diamond stingray is a species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae. It is found in the coastal waters of the eastern Pacific Ocean from southern California to northern Chile, and around the Galápagos and Hawaiian Islands. This bottom-dweller generally inhabits sandy or muddy flats near rocky reefs and kelp forests, to a depth of 30 m (98 ft), though off Hawaii it may range considerably deeper. As its common name suggests, this species has an angular, diamond-shaped pectoral fin disc that is plain brown or gray above, with rows of tubercles along the midline and on the "shoulders". The long, whip-like tail has both dorsal and ventral fin folds, which distinguish this ray from the closely similar longtail stingray (D. longa). It typically grows to 1 m (3.3 ft) across.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Estuary stingray</span> Species of cartilaginous fish

The estuary stingray, also called the estuary stingaree or brown stingray, is a species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae. Endemic to eastern Australia, it typically inhabits shallow, mangrove-lined tidal rivers, estuaries, and bays in southern Queensland and New South Wales. This yellow-brown to olive ray grows to at least 93 cm (37 in) across. It has a diamond-shaped pectoral fin disc and a mostly smooth, whip-like tail bearing both dorsal and ventral fin folds. It can additionally be identified by its long, narrow nostrils and the row of thorns along the midline of its back.

The Niger stingray or smooth freshwater stingray is a species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae, native to rivers in Nigeria and Cameroon. Attaining a width of 40 cm (16 in), this species can be distinguished by its thin, almost circular pectoral fin disk, slightly projecting snout tip, and mostly smooth skin with small or absent dermal denticles. The Niger stingray feeds on aquatic insect larvae and is ovoviviparous. The long stinging spine on the tail of this ray can inflict a painful wound. It has been assessed as Critically Endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), as its numbers are declining in some areas and it faces heavy fishing pressure and habitat degradation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Longnose stingray</span> Species of cartilaginous fish

The longnose stingray is a species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae, native to the western Atlantic Ocean from the southern Gulf of Mexico to Brazil. Found in coastal waters no deeper than 36 m (118 ft), this demersal species favors muddy or sandy habitats. The longnose stingray is characterized by its angular, rhomboid pectoral fin disc, moderately projecting snout, and whip-like tail with a dorsal keel and ventral fin fold. It typically grows to 1.25 m (4.1 ft) across and is brownish above and light-colored below.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mekong freshwater stingray</span> Species of cartilaginous fish

The Mekong freshwater stingray, Hemitrygon laosensis, is a species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae, restricted to the Mekong and Chao Phraya Rivers in Laos and Thailand; the occurrence in Chao Phraya is considered an introduction. Measuring up to 62 cm (24 in) across, this ray has an oval pectoral fin disc, a tail with both upper and lower fin folds, and a midline row of spine-like dermal denticles. A characteristic feature of this species is its bright orange underside. The Mekong freshwater stingray preys on invertebrates and is aplacental viviparous. It has been assessed as Endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), as it is threatened by overfishing and habitat degradation.

The Brazilian large-eyed stingray, Dasyatis marianae, is a species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae. Endemic to northeastern Brazil, adults of this species inhabit shallow coral and sandstone reefs while the young are also found near beaches and in estuaries. This stingray measures up to 40 cm (16 in) across and can be identified by its large eyes, equally long fin folds above and below the tail, and distinctive coloration consisting of various dark brown markings on a yellowish-brown background above, and two pairs of dark brown blotches on a white background below. Reproduction is aplacental viviparous, with females giving birth to one young at a time, twice a year, and using sandbanks as nursery areas. The Brazilian large-eyed stingray is collected by artisanal fisheries and for the ornamental fish trade.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bluntnose stingray</span> Species of cartilaginous fish

The bluntnose stingray or Say's stingray is a species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae, native to the coastal waters of the western Atlantic Ocean from the U.S. state of Massachusetts to Venezuela. It is a bottom-dwelling species that prefers sandy or muddy habitats 1–10 m (3.3–32.8 ft) deep, and is migratory in the northern portion of its range. Typically growing to 78 cm (31 in) across, the bluntnose stingray is characterized by a rhomboid pectoral fin disc with broadly rounded outer corners and an obtuse-angled snout. It has a whip-like tail with both an upper keel and a lower fin fold, and a line of small tubercles along the middle of its back.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Yellow stingray</span> Species of stingray in the family Urotrygonidae

The yellow stingray is a species of stingray in the family Urotrygonidae, found in the tropical western Atlantic Ocean from North Carolina to Trinidad. This bottom-dwelling species inhabits sandy, muddy, or seagrass bottoms in shallow inshore waters, commonly near coral reefs. Reaching no more than 36 cm (14 in) across, the yellow stingray has a round pectoral fin disc and a short tail with a well-developed caudal fin. It has a highly variable but distinctive dorsal color pattern consisting of either light-on-dark or dark-on-light reticulations forming spots and blotches, and can rapidly change the tonality of this coloration to improve its camouflage.

The pincushion ray or thorny freshwater stingray, is a little-known species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae, found in the rivers and lakes of West and Middle Africa. A heavy-bodied ray measuring up to 1.2 m (4 ft) across, this species can be distinguished by its rounded pectoral fin disk, reduced or absent stinging tail spine, and—in adults—numerous stout thorns covering its back and tail. In lieu of a long tail spine as in other stingrays, the pincushion ray employs these thorny denticles in defense. Seldom encountered since it was originally described, this species has been assessed as Critically Endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Broad stingray</span> Species of cartilaginous fish

The Broad stingray, also known as the Brown stingray or Hawaiian stingray, is a species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae. The predominant species of stingray in the inshore waters of the Hawaiian Islands, this benthic fish typically inhabits sandy or muddy flats at depths greater than 15 m (49 ft). Usually growing to 1 m (3 ft) across, the broad stingray has a wide, diamond-shaped pectoral fin disc with a protruding snout tip and a long tail with a ventral fin fold. At night, this species actively forages for bottom-dwelling invertebrates and bony fishes, often near the boundaries of reefs. Reproduction is aplacental viviparous. As substantial threats to its population do not seem to exist, IUCN has listed this species as least concern.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Common stingray</span> Species of cartilaginous fish

The common stingray is a species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae, found in the northeastern Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean and Black Seas. It typically inhabits sandy or muddy habitats in coastal waters shallower than 60 m (200 ft), often burying itself in sediment. Usually measuring 45 cm (18 in) across, the common stingray has a diamond-shaped pectoral fin disc slightly wider than long, and a whip-like tail with upper and lower fin folds. It can be identified by its plain coloration and mostly smooth skin, except for a row of tubercles along the midline of the back in the largest individuals.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Roughtail stingray</span> Species of cartilaginous fish

The roughtail stingray is a species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae, with separate populations in coastal waters of the northwestern, eastern, and southwestern Atlantic Ocean. This bottom-dwelling species typically inhabits sandy or muddy areas with patches of invertebrate cover, at a depth of 15–50 m (49–164 ft). It is seasonally migratory, overwintering in offshore waters and moving into coastal habitats for summer. The largest whip-tail stingray in the Atlantic, the roughtail stingray grows up to 2.6 m (8.5 ft) across and 360 kg (800 lb) in weight. It is plain in color, with an angular, diamond-shaped pectoral fin disc and a long, whip-like tail bearing a subtle fin fold underneath. The many thorns on its back and tail serve to distinguish it from other stingrays that share its range.

References

This article incorporates text from the ARKive fact-file "Southern stingray" under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License and the GFDL .

  1. ↑ Carlson, J.; Charvet, P.; Blanco-Parra, MP, Briones Bell-lloch, A.; Cardenosa, D.; Derrick, D.; Espinoza, E.; Morales-Saldaña, J.M.; Naranjo-Elizondo, B.; Pacoureau, N.; Schneider, E.V.C.; Simpson, N.J.; Pollom, R.; Dulvy, N.K. (2020). "Hypanus americanus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2020: e.T181244884A104123787. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-3.RLTS.T181244884A104123787.en . Retrieved 19 November 2021.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  2. ↑ Dasyatis americana Hildebrand & Schroeder, 1928. FishBase
  3. ↑ Bigelow, H. and Sschroder, W. (1953) Fishes of the Western North Atlantic. Sawfishes, guitarfishes, skates and rays. Mem. Sears Found. Mar. Res. 1, 1-558.
  4. 1 2 3 Southern Stingray. Southern stingray Biological Profile, Ichthyology Department, Florida Museum of Natural History (August, 2007) - via ARKive
  5. ↑ Lieske, E. and Myers, R. (2002) Coral Reef Fishes: Indo-Pacific and Caribbean. HarperCollins Publishers, London – via ARKive
  6. 1 2 Carpenter, K.E. (2001) The Living Marine Resources of the Western Central Atlantic, Volume 1. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome – via ARKive
  7. 1 2 3 Henningsen, A.D. (2000). "Notes on reproduction in the southern stingray, Dasyatis americana (Chondrichthyes: Dasyatidae), in a captive environment". Copeia. 2000 (3): 826–828. doi:10.1643/0045-8511(2000)000[0826:NORITS]2.0.CO;2. JSTOR   1448353. S2CID   85808594.
  8. ↑ McEachran, J. & de Carvalho, M. (2002) "Dasyatidae". In: K.E. Carpenter (ed.). The living marine resources of the Western Central Atlantic. Volume 1. Introduction, molluscs, crustaceans, hagfishes, sharks, batoid fishes and chimaeras. pp. 562–571.
  9. ↑ Tilley, Alexander; Strindberg, Samantha (2013). "Population density estimation of southern stingrays Dasyatis americanaon a Caribbean atoll using distance sampling". Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems. 23 (2): 202. doi:10.1002/aqc.2317.
  10. ↑ Semeniuk, Christina A. D.; Speers-Roesch, Ben; Rothley, Kristina D. (2007). "Using Fatty-Acid Profile Analysis as an Ecologic Indicator in the Management of Tourist Impacts on Marine Wildlife: A Case of Stingray-Feeding in the Caribbean". Environmental Management. 40 (4): 665–77. Bibcode:2007EnMan..40..665S. doi:10.1007/s00267-006-0321-8. PMID   17638047. S2CID   24623615.
  11. ↑ Cartamil, D. P.; Vaudo, J. J.; Lowe, C. G.; Wetherbee, B. M.; Holland, K. N. (2003). "Diel movement patterns of the Hawaiian stingray, Dasyatis lata: implications for ecological interactions between sympatric elasmobranch species". Marine Biology. 142 (5): 841. doi:10.1007/s00227-003-1014-y. S2CID   12785003.
  12. ↑ Rosenberger, L. (2001). "Pectoral fin locomotion in batoid fishes: Undulation versus oscillation" (PDF). The Journal of Experimental Biology. 204 (Pt 2): 379–94. doi:10.1242/jeb.204.2.379. PMID   11136623.
  13. 1 2 Semeniuk, CAD; Rothley, KD (2008). "Costs of group-living for a normally solitary forager: effects of provisioning tourism on southern stingrays Dasyatis americana". Marine Ecology Progress Series. 357: 271–282. Bibcode:2008MEPS..357..271S. doi: 10.3354/meps07299 .
  14. ↑ Semeniuk, Christina A.D.; Haider, Wolfgang; Cooper, Andrew; Rothley, Kristina D. (2010). "A linked model of animal ecology and human behavior for the management of wildlife tourism". Ecological Modelling. 221 (22): 2699. doi:10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2010.07.018.
  15. ↑ https://sta.uwi.edu/fst/lifesciences/sites/default/files/lifesciences/documents/ogatt/Dasyatis_americana%20-%20Southern%20Stingray.pdf [ bare URL PDF ]
  16. ↑ Gilliam, D. & Sullivan, K. (1993). "Diet and feeding habits of the Southern stingray". Bulletin of Marine Science. 52 (3): 1007–1013.
  17. ↑ Passarelli, N., A. Piercy. (2006). "Southern Stingray". Florida Museum of Natural History. Accessed April 29, 2012
  18. ↑ Pikitch, E.; D. Chapman; E. Babcock; M. Shivji (2005). "Habitat use and demographic population structure of elasmobranchs at a Caribbean atoll (Glover's Reef, Belize)". Marine Ecology Progress Series. 302: 187–197. Bibcode:2005MEPS..302..187P. doi: 10.3354/meps302187 .
  19. ↑ Snelson, F.; S. Gruber; F. Murru; T. Schmid (1990). "Southern Stingray, Dasyatis americana: Host for a Symbiotic Cleaner Wrasse". Copeia. 1990 (4): 961–965. doi:10.2307/1446479. JSTOR   1446479.
  20. ↑ Sazima, C.; J. Krajewski; R. Bonaldo; I. Sazima (2007). "Nuclear-follower foraging associations of reef fishes and other animals at an oceanic archipelago". Environmental Biology of Fishes. 80 (4): 351–361. doi:10.1007/s10641-006-9123-3. S2CID   25188593.
  21. ↑ Saunders, D. (1958). "The occurrence of Haemogregarina bigemina Laveran and Mesnil, and H. dasyatis n. sp. in marine fish from Bimini, Bahamas". Transactions of the American Microscopical Society. 77 (4): 404–412. doi:10.2307/3223863. JSTOR   3223863.
  22. ↑ Kohn, A.; S. Cohen; G. Salgado-Maldonado (2006). "Checklist of Monogenea parasites of freshwater and marine fishes, amphibians and reptiles from Mexico, Central America and Caribbean" (PDF). Zootaxa. 1289: 1–114.
  23. ↑ Kajiura, S.; L. Macesic; T. Meredith; K. Cocks; L. Dirk (2009). "Commensal Foraging Between Double-crested Cormorants and a Southern Stingray" (PDF). The Wilson Journal of Ornithology. 121 (3): 646–648. doi:10.1676/08-122.1. S2CID   44216892.
  24. ↑ Brooks, D. & Mayes, M. (1980). "Cestodes in four species of euryhaline stingrays from Colombia". Proceedings of the Helminthological Society of Washington. 47: 22–29.
  25. ↑ Ramirez Mosqueda, E., Perez Jimenez, J. C., & Mendoza Carranza, M. (2012). Reproductive parameters of the southern Stingray Dasyatis americana in southern Gulf of mexico. Latin American Journal of Aquatic Research, 40(2), 335–344. https://doi.org/10.3856/vol40-issue2-fulltext-8
  26. 1 2 3 Chapman, Demian D.; Corcoran, Mark J.; Harvey, Guy M.; Malan, Sonita; Shivji, Mahmood S. (2003). "Mating behavior of southern stingrays, Dasyatis americana (Dasyatidae)" (PDF). Environmental Biology of Fishes. 68 (3): 241. doi:10.1023/A:1027332113894. S2CID   35083420.
  27. ↑ Henningsen, Alan D.; Leaf, Robert T. (2010). "Observations on the Captive Biology of the Southern Stingray". Transactions of the American Fisheries Society. 139 (3): 783. doi:10.1577/T09-124.1.
  28. ↑ Gardiner, J., R. Hueter, K. Maruska, J. Sisneros, B. Casper, D. Mann, L. Dernski. (2012). "Sensory Physiology and Behavior of Elasmobranchs", pp. 349-401 in J Carrier, J Musick, M Heithaus, eds. Biology of Sharks and Their Relatives, Second Edition. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
  29. ↑ "Stingray Conservation and Ecology Research". cnso.nova.edu. Nova Southeastern University. Retrieved March 28, 2017.
  30. 1 2 Michael, Scott (2001). Aquarium Sharks & Rays. Neptune City, NJ: T.F.H Publications, Inc.
  31. ↑
    Southern Stingray | Six Flags Discovery Kingdom . In: Six Flags Discovery Kingdom
  32. ↑
    Ray Bay: Interactive Touch Tank - Long Island Aquarium . In: Long Island Aquarium | Aquatic Adventures
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