Synanceia verrucosa

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Reef Stonefish
Synanceia verrucosa Prague 2011 2.jpg
Reef stonefish in an aquarium in Prague
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Actinopterygii
Order: Scorpaeniformes
Family: Scorpaenidae
Genus: Synanceia
Species:
S. verrucosa
Binomial name
Synanceia verrucosa
Synonyms [2]
  • Synanceichthys verrucosa(Bloch & Schneider, 1801)
  • Synanceichthys verrucosus(Bloch & Schneider, 1801)
  • Scorpaena brachion Lacépède, 1801
  • Synanceia brachio Cuvier, 1829
  • Synanceia thersites Seale, 1901
Reef stonefish in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Synanceia verrucosa.jpg
Reef stonefish in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park

Synanceia verrucosa, the reef stonefish or simply stonefish, is a species of venomous, marine ray-finned fish, belonging to the subfamily Synanceiinae which is classified as being within the family Scorpaenidae, the scorpionfishes and their relatives. It is the most widespread species of stonefish, mostly found in shallow waters of the Red Sea and the Indo-Pacific. [3] It is the deadliest fish in the sea, with highly effective venom which can be lethal to humans. [4]

Contents

Taxonomy

Synanceia verrucosa was first formally described in 1801 by the German naturalists Marcus Elieser Bloch and Johann Gottlob Theaenus Schneider with the type locality given as India. [5] Bloch and Schneider described a new genus, Synanceia , for this species, but in 1856 Eugène Anselme Sébastien Léon Desmarest designated Scorpaena horrida which had been described by Carl Linnaeus in 1766, as the type species of Synanceia. [6] The specific name verrucosa means “covered with verrucas or warts”, an allusion to the warty growths all over its body. [7]

Description

Synanceia verrucosa are usually brown or grey, and may have areas of yellow, orange, or red. [8] The dorsal fin contains between 12 and 14 spines and 5 and 7 soft rays while the anal fin has 3 spines and 5 or 6 soft rays. [2] The dorsal spines are of equal length with a thicker sheath of skin containing the venom glands at their base. The skin has no scales but there are numerous warts. The pectoral fins are fleshy. The head is wide and flattened. The skin is tough and rough with warts. The small upwardly directed eyes have a deep pit behind them with a smaller pit underneath them. [9] This species reaches a maximum recorded total length of 40 cm (16 in) but 27 cm (11 in) is more typical. [2]

Distribution and habitat

This stonefish lives primarily north of the Tropic of Capricorn. It is the most widespread species in the stonefish family, and is known from shallow tropical marine waters in the western Pacific Ocean and the Indian Ocean, ranging from the Red Sea and coastal East Africa to French Polynesia, southern Japan and surrounding Taiwan. [2]

There is recent evidence showing the presence of S. verrucosa in the far eastern Mediterranean Sea since at least 2010 as one was caught near Yavne, Israel - an introduction due either to the release of aquarium specimens or to migrations via the Suez Canal. [10] It has since been observed in Turkey, Lebanon, Syria and Israel. [11]

This fish lives in coral reefs. It may settle on and around rocks and plants, or rest on the seabed.

Reef stonefish on the reef floor Stonefish (Synanceia verrucosa) (6123739451).jpg
Reef stonefish on the reef floor

The reef stonefish has evolved many adaptations to help them succeed in the reef bottom. Their skin texture and color is highly irregular which helps them hide and remain camouflaged when among rocks and corals. [12] [3] The 13 dorsal spines with attendant venom sacs are an additional adaptation that protect the animal when necessary.

Feeding

The reef stonefish eats mostly small fish, shrimp and other crustaceans. It captures prey by sitting motionless on the reef floor and waiting for animals to swim by. The stonefish will then engulf its prey, doing so at incredible speeds. Some stonefish have been recorded striking their prey in 0.015 seconds. [13]

Human uses

The primary commercial significance of this stonefish is as an aquarium pet. It is also sold for meat in Hong Kong markets. It is consumed in the Philippines, especially in Chinese restaurants, and in Japan.　

Toxicity

Synanceia verrucosa in a public aquarium Stone Fish at AQWA SMC2006.jpg
Synanceia verrucosa in a public aquarium

The reef stonefish is the most venomous fish in the world. [8] Its dorsal area is lined with 13 spines, each of which has two venom sacs. [8] The spines are sharp and stiff and have been known to pierce boot soles. [14] Stonefish venom can be fatal at a dose of only 18 mg, which the fish is capable of releasing with only six of its thirteen spines. The protein makeup differs between the three species of stonefish, but in reef stonefish the fatal protein is the verrucotoxin protein. [15]

Effects of the venom include severe pain, shock, paralysis, and tissue death. [14] A large dose can be fatal to humans, generally young children, the elderly, and those with weakened immune systems. Medical treatment includes the antivenom. A local anesthetic can reduce the pain. First aid includes immersion of the affected limb in hot water; this is thought to help denature the proteins in the venom. The immobilization of venom at penetration site using a tourniquet or firm constrictive bandaging is no longer recommended. [16] Surviving victims may have nerve damage, which can lead to local muscle atrophy.

The venom consists of a mixture of proteins, including the hemolytic stonustoxin, the proteinaceous verrucotoxin, and the cardiotoxic cardioleputin.

Reproduction

The reef stonefish lives most of its life as a solitary animal, and during mating season only aggregates with the opposite sex for a short time. When a female stonefish has reached sexual maturity, she will lay her unfertilized eggs on the floor of the reef. A male will then swim by and release sperm onto the layer of eggs, fertilizing them. Stonefish eggs are fairly large, with young fish hatching well developed. The mating system of the reef stonefish is promiscuity, as the female will not discriminate between which males can lay their sperm on the egg layer. Sexual dimorphism is apparent in reef stonefish, with females being larger than males. [17]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Synanceiinae</span> Family of fishes

Synanceiinae is a subfamily of venomous ray-finned fishes, waspfishes, which is classified as part of the family Scorpaenidae, the scorpionfishes and their relatives. These fishes are found in the Indo-Pacific oceans. They are primarily marine, though some species are known to live in fresh or brackish waters. The various species of this family are known informally as stonefish, stinger, stingfish and ghouls. Its species are known to have the most potent neurotoxins of all the fish venoms, secreted from glands at the base of their needle-like dorsal fin spines. The vernacular name, stonefish, for some of these fishes derives from their behaviour of camouflaging as rocks. The type species of the family is the estuarine stonefish.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Velvetfish</span> Family of fishes

Little velvetfishes or simply velvetfishes are a family, the Aploactinidae, of marine ray-finned fishes classified within the order Scorpaeniformes. They are small fish that have skin with a velvet texture. They live on the sea bottom close to the shore, at depths of up to 100 metres (330 ft). They are found in the Indo-Pacific region.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Venomous fish</span> Fish that have the ability to produce toxins

Venomous fish are species of fish which produce strong mixtures of toxins harmful to humans which they deliberately deliver by means of a bite, sting, or stab, resulting in an envenomation. As a contrast, poisonous fish also produce a strong toxin, but they do not bite, sting, or stab to deliver the toxin, instead being poisonous to eat because the human digestive system does not destroy the toxin they contain in their bodies. Venomous fish do not necessarily cause poisoning if they are eaten, as the digestive system often destroys the venom.

<i>Synanceia nana</i> Species of fish

Synanceia nana, the Red Sea stonefish or dwarf scorpionfish, is a species of venomous, marine ray-finned fish, a stonefish belonging to the subfamily Synanceiinae which is classified as being within the family Scorpaenidae, the scorpionfishes and their relatives. It is found in the northwestern Indian Ocean.

Although most species in the Red Sea pose no threat to humans, there are a few notable exceptions.

<i>Synanceia</i> Genus of venomous fishes

Synanceia is a genus of ray-finned fish belonging to the subfamily Synanceiinae, the stonefish, which is classified within the family Scorpaenidae, the scorpionfish and relatives. Stonefish are the most venomous fish known; stings can be fatal to humans. They are found in the coastal regions of the Indo-Pacific and Caribbean.

<i>Synanceia horrida</i> Species of fish

Synanceia horrida, the estuarine stonefish, hollow-cheek stonefish, horrid stonefish, rough stonefish or true stonefish, is a species of venomous, marine ray-finned fish, a stonefish belonging to the subfamily Synanceiinae which is classified as being within the family Scorpaenidae, the scorpionfishes and their relatives. It is a benthic fish which is found in the Indo-Pacific region. This species is considered to be one of the most dangerous venomous fish in the world. It is a popular exhibit in public aquaria and is found in the private aquarium trade.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Coral reef fish</span> Fish which live amongst or in close relation to coral reefs

Coral reef fish are fish which live amongst or in close relation to coral reefs. Coral reefs form complex ecosystems with tremendous biodiversity. Among the myriad inhabitants, the fish stand out as colourful and interesting to watch. Hundreds of species can exist in a small area of a healthy reef, many of them hidden or well camouflaged. Reef fish have developed many ingenious specialisations adapted to survival on the reefs.

<i>Inimicus</i> Genus of fishes

Inimicus is a genus of marine ray-finned fishes, it is one of two genera in the tribe Choridactylini, one of the three tribes which are classified within the subfamily Synanceiinae within the family Scorpaenidae, the scorpionfishes and their relatives. These venomous, benthic fishes are found on sandy or silty substrates of lagoon and seaward reefs, in coastal regions of tropical oceans. The ten described species are collectively known by various common names, including ghoul, goblinfish, sea goblin, spiny devilfish, stinger, and stingfish.

The dusky velvetfish is a species of marine ray-finned fish, a velvetfish belonging to the family Aploactinidae. It is the only member of the monotypic genus Aploactis. This species is found in the western Pacific Ocean.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Warty prowfish</span> Species of fish

The warty prowfish, also known as the smooth prowfish or Tasmanian prowfish, is a species of marine ray-finned fish, an Australian prowfish belonging to the family Pataecidae, It is endemic to the coastal waters of southern Australia where it inhabits mostly rocky reefs. This species is the only member of the monotypic genus Aetapcus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pitted stonefish</span> Species of fishes

The pitted stonefish, also known as the Pacific monkey-fish, is a species of venomous ray-finned fish, a stonefish be longing to the subfamily Synanceiinae of the family Scorpaenidae, the scorpionfishes and their relatives. It is the only species in the monotypic genus Erosa and is found in the eastern Indian Ocean and the western Pacific Ocean.

Leptosynanceia is a monotypic genus of ray-finned fish belonging to the subfamily Synanceiinae, the stonefishes, which is classified within the family Scorpaenidae, the scorpionfishes and relatives, its only species is Leptosynanceia asteroblepa which is called the mangrove stonefish in Malaysia. This species native to the brackish and fresh waters of Southeast Asia. This species grows to a total length of 23 centimetres (9.1 in). This species is an extremely dangerous fish whose venom can cause a human to die within 1 to 2 hours after contact. The pain caused by the venom is described as "agonizing".

<i>Minous</i> Genus of fishes

Minous, is a genus of marine ray-finned fishes, it is the only genus in the tribe Minoini, one of the three tribes which are classified within the subfamily Synanceiinae within the family Scorpaenidae, the scorpionfishes and their relatives. They are commonly known as stingfishes. They are found in the Indo-West Pacific.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Blackfin stonefish</span> Genus of fishes

The blackfin stonefish is a species of venomous ray-finned fish, a stonefish be longing to the subfamily Synanceiinae of the family Scorpaenidae, the scorpionfishes and their relatives. It is the only species in the monotypic genus. It is native to the western Indian Ocean where it occurs in areas with muddy bottoms. This species grows to a total length of 13 centimetres (5.1 in).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stargazing stonefish</span> Genus of fishes

The stargazing stonefish is a species of stonefish native to the Indian Ocean and the western Pacific Ocean where it is found on muddy bottoms in estuaries. This venomous species is also a minor component of local commercial fisheries. This species grows to a length of 8 centimetres (3.1 in) SL. This species is the only known member of the genus Trachicephalus.

<i>Scorpaenopsis diabolus</i> Species of fish

Scorpaenopsis diabolus, the false stonefish, false scorpionfish or the devil scorpionfish, is a species of venomous marine ray-finned fish belonging to the family Scorpaenidae, the scorpionfishes. It has venomous spines and lives in the tropical Indian and Pacific Oceans as well as in the Red Sea. It is a bottom-dwelling predator that relies on its camouflage to catch passing prey.

<i>Minous monodactylus</i> Species of fish

Minous monodactylus, the grey stingfish or grey goblinfish, is a species of marine ray-finned fishes, it is the only genus in the tribe Minoini, one of the three tribes which are classified within the subfamily Synanceiinae within the family Scorpaenidae, the scorpionfishes and their relatives. This species found in the Indo-Pacific and is venomous to humans.

Verrucotoxin (VTX) is a lethal venom produced by the dorsal fins of Synanceia verrucosa. This species of reef stonefish is connected to the family Synanceiidae. The venom of this species of stonefish is a tetrameric glycoprotein with cardiovascular and cytolytic effects.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Daruma stinger</span> Species of venomous ray-finned fish

The daruma stinger, also known as the North-western stonefish, is a species of venomous ray-finned fish, a stonefish belonging to the subfamily Synanceiinae of the family Scorpaenidae, the scorpionfishes and their relatives. It is the only species in the monotypic genus Dampierosa and is endemic to Australia.

References

  1. ↑ Motomura, H.; Matsuura, K. & Khan, M. (2018). "Synanceia verrucosa". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2018: e.T114180058A116389039. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T114180058A116389039.en . Retrieved 19 November 2021.
  2. 1 2 3 4 Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2022). "Synanceia verrucosa" in FishBase. February 2022 version.
  3. 1 2 Smith, J. L. B. (1977). Smiths' Sea Fishes. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. p. 478. ISBN   9783642828584.
  4. ↑ Wells, V. "The Stonefish – The Deadliest Fish in The World". Petplace. Retrieved 30 June 2014.
  5. ↑ Eschmeyer, William N.; Fricke, Ron & van der Laan, Richard (eds.). "Species in the genus Synanceia". Catalog of Fishes . California Academy of Sciences . Retrieved 15 April 2022.
  6. ↑ Eschmeyer, William N.; Fricke, Ron & van der Laan, Richard (eds.). "Genera in the family Synanceiinae". Catalog of Fishes . California Academy of Sciences . Retrieved 17 April 2022.
  7. ↑ Christopher Scharpf & Kenneth J. Lazara, eds. (10 March 2022). "Order Perciformes (Part 10): Suborder Scorpaenoidei: Families Apistidae, Tetrarogidae, Synanceiidae, Aploacrinidae, Perryenidae, Eschmeyeridae, Pataceidae, Gnathanacanthidae, Congiopodidae and Zanclorhynchidae". The ETYFish Project Fish Name Etymology Database. Christopher Scharpf and Kenneth J. Lazara. Retrieved 17 April 2022.
  8. 1 2 3 McGrouther, M. (21 February 2013). "Reef Stonefish, Synanceia verrucosasasa (Bloch & Schneider, 1801)". Sydney: Australian Museum. Retrieved 30 June 2014.
  9. ↑ Bray, D.J. (2020). "Synanceia verrucosa". Fishes of Australia. Museums Victoria. Retrieved 17 April 2022.
  10. ↑ Edelist, D.; Spanier, E.; Golani, D. (June 2011). "Evidence for the cccurrence of the Indo-Pacific stonefish, Synanceia verrucosa (Actinopterygii: Scorpaeniformes: Synanceiidae), in the Mediterranean Sea". Acta Ichthyologica et Piscatoria. 41 (2): 129–131. doi: 10.3750/AIP2011.41.2.09 .
  11. ↑ Atlas of Exotic Fishes in the Mediterranean Sea (Synanceia verrucosa). 2nd Edition. 2021. 366p. CIESM Publishers, Paris, Monaco.https://ciesm.org/atlas/fishes_2nd_edition/Synanceia_verrucosa.pdf
  12. ↑ "Adaptation". bioweb.uwlax.edu. Retrieved 2019-11-04.
  13. ↑ "Nutrition". bioweb.uwlax.edu. Retrieved 2019-12-06.
  14. 1 2 Taylor, G. (2000). "Toxic fish spine injury: lessons from 11 years experience" (PDF). South Pacific Underwater Medicine Society Journal. 30 (1): 7–8. Archived from the original on June 10, 2015.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  15. ↑ Yazawa, K; Wang, J-W (August 2007). "Verrucotoxin, a stonefish venom, modulates calcium channel activity in guinea-pig ventricular myocytes". British Journal of Pharmacology. 151 (8): 1198–1203. doi:10.1038/sj.bjp.0707340. PMC   2189832 . PMID   17572694.
  16. ↑ White, J. (2001). "First Aid for Marine Bites and Stings". CSL Antivenom Handbook. www.toxinology.com. Retrieved 30 June 2014.
  17. ↑ Fewings, D.G.; Squire, L.C. (April 1999). "Notes on reproduction in the estuarine stonefish Synanceia horrida" (PDF). SPC Live Reef Fish Information Bulletin.
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