Venom or zootoxin is a type of toxin produced by an animal that is actively delivered through a wound by means of a bite, sting, or similar action. The toxin is delivered through a specially evolved venom apparatus, such as fangs or a stinger, in a process called envenomation. Venom is often distinguished from poison, which is a toxin that is passively delivered by being ingested, inhaled, or absorbed through the skin, and toxungen, which is actively transferred to the external surface of another animal via a physical delivery mechanism.
Stingrays are a group of sea rays, which are cartilaginous fish related to sharks. They are classified in the suborder Myliobatoidei of the order Myliobatiformes and consist of eight families: Hexatrygonidae, Plesiobatidae, Urolophidae (stingarees), Urotrygonidae, Dasyatidae, Potamotrygonidae, Gymnuridae and Myliobatidae . There are about 220 known stingray species organized into 29 genera.
Antivenom, also known as antivenin, venom antiserum, and antivenom immunoglobulin, is a specific treatment for envenomation. It is composed of antibodies and used to treat certain venomous bites and stings. Antivenoms are recommended only if there is significant toxicity or a high risk of toxicity. The specific antivenom needed depends on the species involved. It is given by injection.
River stingrays or freshwater stingrays are Neotropical freshwater fishes of the family Potamotrygonidae in the order Myliobatiformes, one of the four orders of batoids, cartilaginous fishes related to sharks. They are found in rivers in tropical and subtropical South America. A single marine genus, Styracura, of the tropical West Atlantic and East Pacific are also part of Potamotrygonidae. They are generally brownish, greyish or black, often with a mottled, speckled or spotted pattern, have disc widths ranging from 31 to 200 centimetres (1.0–6.6 ft) and venomous tail stingers. River stingrays feed on a wide range of smaller animals and the females give birth to live young. There are more than 35 species in five genera.
Venomous snakes are species of the suborder Serpentes that are capable of producing venom, which they use for killing prey, for defense, and to assist with digestion of their prey. The venom is typically delivered by injection using hollow or grooved fangs, although some venomous snakes lack well-developed fangs. Common venomous snakes include the families Elapidae, Viperidae, Atractaspididae, and some of the Colubridae. The toxicity of venom is mainly indicated by murine LD50, while multiple factors are considered to judge the potential danger to humans. Other important factors for risk assessment include the likelihood that a snake will bite, the quantity of venom delivered with the bite, the efficiency of the delivery mechanism, and the location of a bite on the body of the victim. Snake venom may have both neurotoxic and hemotoxic properties. There are about 600 venomous snake species in the world.
Naja is a genus of elapid snakes commonly known as cobras. Like all other elapids, it is venomous. Members of the genus Naja are the most widespread and the most widely recognized as "true" cobras. Various species occur in regions throughout Africa, Southwest Asia, South Asia, and Southeast Asia. Several other elapid species are also called "cobras", such as the king cobra and the rinkhals, but neither are true cobras, in that they do not belong to the genus Naja, but instead each belong to monotypic genera Hemachatus and Ophiophagus.
Rhabdophis is a genus of snakes in the subfamily Natricinae of the family Colubridae. Species in the genus Rhabdophis are generally called keelback snakes, and are found primarily in Southeast Asia.
Although most species in the Red Sea pose no threat to humans, there are a few notable exceptions.
The Xingu River ray, white-blotched river stingray, or polka-dot stingray is a species of freshwater fish in the family Potamotrygonidae. It is endemic to the Xingu River basin in Brazil and prefers rocky bottoms. It is sometimes kept in aquaria. The Xingu river ray is a venomous stingray that contains venom localized at its dentine spine in its tail. While the ray's venom composition does not change with maturation, the venom toxicity decreases as rays get older. On the other hand, rays’ jaw shape, stiffness, and mineralization are strengthened with age, which allows mature rays the ability to consume hard-shelled invertebrates. These changes in traits with maturation reflect the different pressures rays experience in terms of functions such as feeding and avoiding predation during different maturity stages.
Synanceia is a genus of ray-finned fish belonging to the subfamily Synanceiinae, the stonefishes, which is classified within the family Scorpaenidae, the scorpionfishes and relatives. Stonefishes are venomous, dangerous, and fatal to humans. They are the most venomous fish known. They are found in the coastal regions of the Indo-Pacific.
A stingray injury is caused by the venomous tail spines, stingers or dermal denticles of rays in the order Myliobatiformes, most significantly those belonging to the families Dasyatidae, Urotrygonidae, Urolophidae, and Potamotrygonidae. Stingrays generally do not attack aggressively or even actively defend themselves. When threatened, their primary reaction is to swim away. However, when attacked by predators or stepped on, the stinger in their tail is whipped up. This is normally ineffective against sharks, their main predator.
Coral reef fish are fish which live amongst or in close relation to coral reefs. Coral reefs form complex ecosystems with tremendous biodiversity. Among the myriad inhabitants, the fish stand out as colourful and interesting to watch. Hundreds of species can exist in a small area of a healthy reef, many of them hidden or well camouflaged. Reef fish have developed many ingenious specialisations adapted to survival on the reefs.
Wildlife attacks in Australia occur every year from several different native species, including snakes, spiders, freshwater and saltwater crocodiles, various sharks, cassowaries, kangaroos, stingrays and stonefish and a variety of smaller marine creatures such as bluebottles, blue-ringed octopus, cone shells and jellyfish.
Stonustoxin (SNTX) is an extremely potent cytolytic toxin of the perforin-like superfamily. It is mainly found in stonefish (Synanceia). The name Stonustoxin is an abbreviation of STOnefish National University of Singapore.
Mipartoxin-I is a neurotoxin produced by Micrurus mipartitus, a venomous coral snake distributed in Central and South America. This toxin causes a neuromuscular blockade by blocking the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor. It is the most abundant component in the venom.
The whole blood clotting test is a blood test used to check the coagulation mechanism in the blood following a snake bite. If the test is positive after a bite in South East Asia it indicates the snake was a viper rather than an elapid. It can also be used to assess the effectiveness of antivenin therapy.
List of reported attacks and species involved in Latin America.
Potamotrygon rex, the great river stingray, is a species of freshwater stingray belonging to the family Potamotrygonidae, native to South America in the Neotropical region. P. rex, along with some other Potamotrygon species form a sub-species group known as "black stingrays" known by their similar features and their locality to rivers draining the Central Brazilian Shield. Specifically, it is native to the Rio Tocantins in the central Brazilian state of Tocantins. It is quite a large organism, weighing up to 20 kg. Its appearance is dark brown to blackish with distinct clusters of yellow-orange spots around similarly colored ocelli on its dorsal side. Distinguishing features include broad pelvic-fin apices, lack of labial grooves, irregular double row of dorsal tail thorns, and having two angular cartilages associated with each hyomandibula.
Venomics is the large-scale study of proteins associated with venom. Venom is a toxic substance secreted by animals, which is typically injected either offensively or defensively into prey or aggressors, respectively.
