Tectonic evolution of the Aravalli Mountains

Last updated

The Aravalli Mountain Range in Rajasthan, India 1 Aravalli Range in Rajasthan India.jpg
The Aravalli Mountain Range in Rajasthan, India
The Aravalli Mountain Range is in the northwestern part of India. India Geographic Map.jpg
The Aravalli Mountain Range is in the northwestern part of India.

The Aravalli Mountain Range is a northeast-southwest trending orogenic belt in the northwest part of India and is part of the Indian Shield that was formed from a series of cratonic collisions. [1] The Aravalli Mountains consist of the Aravalli and Delhi fold belts, and are collectively known as the Aravalli-Delhi orogenic belt. The whole mountain range is about 700 km long. [2] Unlike the much younger Himalayan section nearby, the Aravalli Mountains are believed much older and can be traced back to the Proterozoic Eon. They are arguably the oldest geological feature on Earth. [3] The collision between the Bundelkhand craton and the Marwar craton is believed to be the primary mechanism for the development of the mountain range. [1]

Contents

The precise evolutionary processes responsible for the Aravalli Mountain Range remains controversial today, and there are diverse theories put forward for the tectonic history.

Geology of the Aravalli Mountains

The Aravalli Mountain Range features a horst-like structure and consists of a series of Proterozoic rocks that are intensely deformed and metamorphosed. [4]

General formation

Three main subdivisions of rocks constitute the stratigraphy of the mountain range, with the Archean Bhilwara Gneissic Complex basement being the lowest strata, followed by the overlying lower Aravalli Supergroup and the upper Delhi Supergroup. [2] The northern part of the mountain range only consists of the Delhi Supergroup, and this has given to its name of ‘North Delhi Belt. [2] On the southern side, however, both the Aravalli and Delhi supergroups are present. The mountain range is bounded by the Eastern and Western marginal faults, where the former is also termed as the Great Boundary Fault. [4]

General geological formation of the Aravalli Mountains
Delhi SupergroupAjabgarh Group (=Kumbhalgarh Group) Carbonate, mafic volcanic and argillaceous rocks
Alwar Group (= Gogunda Group) Arenaceous and mafic volcanic rocks
Raialo GroupMafic volcanic and calcareous rocks
Aravalli SupergroupJharol Group Turbidite facies and argillaceous rocks
Debari Group Carbonates, quartzite, and pelitic rocks
Delwara Group
Archean basementBanded Gneissic Complex (BGC) Schists, gneisses and composite gneiss

Quartzites

Archean Bhilwara Gneissic Complex basement

The Bhilwara Gneissic Complex basement is about 2.5 Ga old. [2] It is made up of a group of metamorphic and igneous rocks that are mainly amphibolite to granulite grade, tonalitic to granodioritic gneisses and intrusive granitoids with a minor amount of metasedimentary and metavolcanic rocks. [5] [6] The basement is categorized into two subdivisions: the Sandmata Complex and the Mangalwar Complex. [7] [8] The Sandmata Complex refers to gneisses and granitoids while the Mangalwar Complex refers to the metasedimentary and metavolcanic series which are considered to be metamorphosed older granite-greenstone belt. [7] [8]

Aravalli Supergroup

On top of the Archean basement, the Aravalli Supergroup overlies with clear unconformities separating the two strata. [4] The Aravalli Supergroup is divided into three groups: lower Delwara Group, middle Debari Group, and Upper Jharol Group. [9] The lower and middle groups shared similar lithology, where both groups are dominated by carbonates, quartzite, and pelitic rocks, thus suggesting a shelf depositional environment. Turbidite facies and argillaceous rocks are prominent in the upper Jharol group, thus suggesting a deep marine depositional environment. [9] The depositional age of these sequences ranges approximately from 2.1 to 1.9 Ga. [2]

Three major episodes of deformation and metamorphism were involved in the Aravalli Supergroup, including foldings, shearing, kink bands and crenulations etc. [9] Metamorphic grades of the rocks generally range from greenschist facies to amphibolite facies. [9]

Delhi Supergroup

The upper Delhi Supergroup overlies on the Aravalli Supergroup with a clear unconformity. [4] This supergroup hosts two main types of rocks: a thick sequence of volcanic rocks that is of continental affinity; and sedimentary rocks that represent fluvial and shallow marine environments and deep marine depositional environment. [4] The depositional age of these sequences is approximately from 1.7 to 1.5 Ga. [2]

In the ‘North Delhi belt’, the Delhi Supergroup is classified into three groups: lower Raialo Group, middle Alwar Group, and upper Ajabgarh Group. [5] [10] The Raialo Group consists predominantly of mafic volcanic and calcareous rocks. [2] The Alwar Group mainly consists of arenaceous and mafic volcanic rocks. [2] The Ajabgarh Group is dominated by carbonate, mafic volcanic and argillaceous rocks. [2] In the southern part, similar rock types, despite different names, are identified, where they are Gogunda Group (equivalent to Alwar group) and the Kumbhalgarh Group (equivalent to Ajabgarh Group). [5] [11]

Four phases of tectonic evolution

The tectonic evolution of the Aravalli-Delhi orogenic belt can be divided into four phases: [7]

  1. Bhilwara Gneissic Complex (~ 2,500 Ma)
  2. Aravalli Orogeny (~ 1,800 Ma)
  3. Delhi Orogeny (~ 1,100 Ma)
  4. Post-orogenic evolution (~ 850 – 750 Ma)

Two phases of rifting, sedimentation, collision and suturing were documented in the tectonic evolution of the Aravalli-Delhi orogenic belt. [7] During Proterozoic Eon, N-S convergence between the Bundelkhand and Bhandara cratons at the Satpura Mobile Belt, and E-W convergence between the Bundelkhand and Marwar cratons at the Aravalli-Delhi orogenic belt have synchronously occurred in India. [1] This resulted in an overall resultant force of NE-SW convergence of the Aravalli-Delhi orogenic belt, and also led to the arcuate shape of its convergent zone. [1]

Evolution of the Archean basement

The Aravalli Mountains basement started with an older sialic crust evolving into extensive granitic batholiths by the emplacement of granitic bodies during the period ca. 3.0 to 2.5 Ga. [4] This subsequently led to rapid cratonization and rapid thickening of crust to about 20–25 km. [12] [13] The main crustal source is believed to be old crustal components of the area. [5] [14] The region subsequently experienced a large scale metamorphic event that granite is partly metamorphosed into gneissic rocks, forming the Archean Basement. [4] These cratonization processes continued together signifying the end of amalgamation of cratonic nuclei that constitutes the development of an early continental crust.

Aravalli Orogeny

During the Paleoproterozoic Era, the opening of Aravalli oceanic basin separated the eastern Bundelkhand craton and the western Marwar craton. [7] Sedimentation of the Aravalli Supergroup took place simultaneously with basic magmatism and followed by a gradual subsidence of the Aravalli Basin floor. [4] [15]

Soon after the rifting phase ended, the compressional phase took place where the eastern Bundelkhand craton subducted under the western Marwar craton. [7] As collision continued, the subduction zone steepened, leading to the development of an island arc between the two cratons. [7] After collision had proceeded for a certain period of time, the uplift of the Aravalli Supergroup was induced at around 1800 Ma. [2] [7] In the last stage of convergence, the thrust fault further steepened and the colliding blocks eventually become sutured. [7] The suture zone is marked by the Great Boundary Fault. [9]

Delhi Orogeny

During the Mesoproterozoic Era, another rifting phase began. [7] [16] At that time, the Bundelkhand-Aravalli-BGC and the Marwar craton lie on the eastern side and western side respectively as the rifting phase separated the Bhilwara Gneissic Complex (BGC) from the Marwar craton. [7] The oceanic basin created in the course of rifting received the Delhi Supergroup sediments.

The compressional phase that followed led to eastward subduction of the western Marwar craton. [7] Continuous subduction of the western block might have created another island arc, and similar to the Aravalli orogeny, further collision between the two blocks with island arc in between gave rise to the development of the Delhi orogeny around 1100 Ma. [5] [7] The suture zone between the two cratons is marked by the Western Marginal Fault and the emplacement of the Phulad Ophiolite Suite in the region. [9]

Post-orogenic evolution

Acid magmatic events

The epilogue of the tectonic evolution was marked by granitic and rhyolitic magmatic events, namely the emplacement of the Erinpura granite and the Malani Volcanics on the western side of Aravalli-Delhi orogenic belt. [4] This event is ranked third among the largest igneous province in the globe, with a total area of about 52,000 km2 in India. [9] Malani Igneous Suite is a collective term for bimodal volcanic and plutonic rocks aged 873–800 Ma in the area. [9] The lithologies of the rock suite are predominantly rhyolitic and rhyodacitic volcanic rocks with granitoid intrusions overlying unconformably or intruding through the Delhi Supergroup. [6] [9]

Purana basins formation

Apart from the vigorous post-orogenic magmatic event, a large number of so-called ‘Purana’ basins was actively developing near the orogenic belts. [9] The word ‘Purana’ means ‘ancient’ and was used to depict the group of isolated sedimentary basins with thick Proterozoic sedimentary strata that are relatively undeformed on the Indian Shield. [2] The Vindhyan Basin and the Marwar Basin are part of the Purana basins that sit near the Aravalli Mountain Range.

  • Vindhyan Basin

The Vindhyan Basin is located on the southeastern side of the Aravalli Mountain Range where its formation is believed to be associated to the large downwarp of the crust after Delhi Orogeny. [9] It spans an area of about 104,000 km2 in the northwestern part of India overlying on the Archean Bhilwara Gneissic Basement. [17] The Vindhyan Supergroup is classified into two fundamental strata, lower and upper Vindhyan, with a large unconformity representing 500 million years interval between the strata. [2] Within each stratum, it is further categorized into major groups. The lower Vinhydan comprises the Semri Group while the upper Vinhyan consists of the Kaimur Group, Rewa Group, and Bhander Group. [2] The earliest sedimentation forming the lower Vindhyan can be traced back to Paleoproterozoic and stopped somewhere around early Mesoproterozoic (~1,721 Ma to 1,600 Ma). [17] Sedimentation forming the upper Vindhyan resumed again in the Mesoproterozoic and ceased in Neoproterozoic. [17] [18] Vindhyan Supergroup portrayed transitional to shallow marine depositional environment, such as alluvial fan, delta, tidal flat, carbonate ramp etc. [17]

  • Marwar basin

To the west of the Aravalli Mountain Range and far beyond the Vindhyan Basin lies the Neoproterozoic-to-Cambrian-aged Marwar Basin. [9] The Marwar Basin sits on the Malani Igneous Suite and contains a sedimentary section of 2 km in thickness. [9] Similar to other Purana basins, the Marwar Supergroup is less deformed and unmetamorphosed. The Marwar Supergroup is classified into three major groups: the lower Jodhpur Group, the middle Bilara Group, and the upper Nagaur Group. [9] Arenaceous rocks, calcareous rocks and evaporites are the dominant rock type in the Marwar Basin. [9]

Association with supercontinent cycles

The tectonic events and basin developmental phases are thought to be correlated to the amalgamation and breakup of plates during supercontinent cycles of Columbia, Rodinia, and Gondwana.

The Aravalli orogeny (~1,800 Ma) began with the development of oceanic basin. The rifting process is believed to be associated with the formation of the Columbia supercontinent, which happened from 2.5 Ga to 1.8 Ga and was coeval with the onset of Aravalli orogeny's rifting basin. [9] The opening of another sedimentary basin during the Delhi orogeny (~-1,100 Ma) coincided with the time where the supercontinent Columbia broke up, and the cessation of basin development followed by a compressional phase was concurrent with the assembly of Rodinia. [9] [17] The deposition of the upper Vindhyan Supergroup may also denote the final episode of Rodinia formation. [9] Several geochemical analyses show that detrital zircon samples obtained from the Marwar basin are highly linked to the breakup phase of Rodinia and the assembly phase of Gondwana. [9]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Orogeny</span> The formation of mountain ranges

Orogeny is a mountain-building process that takes place at a convergent plate margin when plate motion compresses the margin. An orogenic belt or orogen develops as the compressed plate crumples and is uplifted to form one or more mountain ranges. This involves a series of geological processes collectively called orogenesis. These include both structural deformation of existing continental crust and the creation of new continental crust through volcanism. Magma rising in the orogen carries less dense material upwards while leaving more dense material behind, resulting in compositional differentiation of Earth's lithosphere. A synorogenic process or event is one that occurs during an orogeny.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aravalli Range</span> Mountain range in western India

The Aravalli Range is a mountain range in Northern-Western India, running approximately 670 km (420 mi) in a south-west direction, starting near Delhi, passing through southern Haryana, Rajasthan, and ending in Ahmedabad Gujarat. The highest peak is Guru Shikhar on Mount Abu at 1,722 m (5,650 ft). The Aravalli Range is arguably the oldest geological feature on Earth, having its origin in the Proterozoic era.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Geology of India</span> Geological origins and structure of India

The geology of India is diverse. Different regions of India contain rocks belonging to different geologic periods, dating as far back as the Eoarchean Era. Some of the rocks are very deformed and altered. Other deposits include recently deposited alluvium that has yet to undergo diagenesis. Mineral deposits of great variety are found in the Indian subcontinent in huge quantities. Even India's fossil record is impressive in which stromatolites, invertebrates, vertebrates and plant fossils are included. India's geographical land area can be classified into the Deccan Traps, Gondwana and Vindhyan.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Grenville orogeny</span> Mesoproterozoic mountain-building event

The Grenville orogeny was a long-lived Mesoproterozoic mountain-building event associated with the assembly of the supercontinent Rodinia. Its record is a prominent orogenic belt which spans a significant portion of the North American continent, from Labrador to Mexico, as well as to Scotland.

The Penokean orogeny was a mountain-building episode that occurred in the early Proterozoic about 1.86 to 1.83 billion years ago, in the area of Lake Superior, North America. The core of this orogeny, the Churchill Craton, is composed of terranes derived from the 1.86–1.81 Ga collision between the Superior and North Atlantic cratons. The orogeny resulted in the formation of the Nena and Arctica continents, which later merged with other continents to form the Columbia supercontinent. The name was first proposed by Blackwelder 1914 in reference to what is known as the Penokee Range, sometimes incorrectly called the Gogebic Range, in northern Michigan and Wisconsin.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Geology of Australia</span> Overview of the geology of Australia

The geology of Australia includes virtually all known rock types, spanning a geological time period of over 3.8 billion years, including some of the oldest rocks on earth. Australia is a continent situated on the Indo-Australian Plate.

The Pan-African orogeny was a series of major Neoproterozoic orogenic events which related to the formation of the supercontinents Gondwana and Pannotia about 600 million years ago. This orogeny is also known as the Pan-Gondwanan or Saldanian Orogeny. The Pan-African orogeny and the Grenville orogeny are the largest known systems of orogenies on Earth. The sum of the continental crust formed in the Pan-African orogeny and the Grenville orogeny makes the Neoproterozoic the period of Earth's history that has produced most continental crust.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Slave Craton</span> Area of ancient rocks in northwest Canada

The Slave Craton is an Archaean craton in the north-western Canadian Shield, in Northwest Territories and Nunavut. The Slave Craton includes the 4.03 Ga-old Acasta Gneiss which is one of the oldest dated rocks on Earth. Covering about 300,000 km2 (120,000 sq mi), it is a relatively small but well-exposed craton dominated by ~2.73–2.63 Ga greenstones and turbidite sequences and ~2.72–2.58 Ga plutonic rocks, with large parts of the craton underlain by older gneiss and granitoid units. The Slave Craton is one of the blocks that compose the Precambrian core of North America, also known as the palaeocontinent Laurentia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Geology of Antarctica</span> Geologic composition of Antarctica

The geology of Antarctica covers the geological development of the continent through the Archean, Proterozoic and Phanerozoic eons.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Geology of the Rocky Mountains</span> Discontinuous series of North American mountain ranges with distinct geological origin

The geology of the Rocky Mountains is that of a discontinuous series of mountain ranges with distinct geological origins. Collectively these make up the Rocky Mountains, a mountain system that stretches from Northern British Columbia through central New Mexico and which is part of the great mountain system known as the North American Cordillera.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Trans-Hudson orogeny</span> Mountain-building event in North America

The Trans-Hudson orogeny or Trans-Hudsonian orogeny was the major mountain building event (orogeny) that formed the Precambrian Canadian Shield and the North American Craton, forging the initial North American continent. It gave rise to the Trans-Hudson orogen (THO), or Trans-Hudson Orogen Transect (THOT), which is the largest Paleoproterozoic orogenic belt in the world. It consists of a network of belts that were formed by Proterozoic crustal accretion and the collision of pre-existing Archean continents. The event occurred 2.0–1.8 billion years ago.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wyoming Craton</span> Craton in the west-central United States and western Canada

The Wyoming Craton is a craton in the west-central United States and western Canada – more specifically, in Montana, Wyoming, southern Alberta, southern Saskatchewan, and parts of northern Utah. Also called the Wyoming Province, it is the initial core of the continental crust of North America.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Laurentia</span> Craton forming the geological core of North America

Laurentia or the North American Craton is a large continental craton that forms the ancient geological core of North America. Many times in its past, Laurentia has been a separate continent, as it is now in the form of North America, although originally it also included the cratonic areas of Greenland and also the northwestern part of Scotland, known as the Hebridean Terrane. During other times in its past, Laurentia has been part of larger continents and supercontinents and consists of many smaller terranes assembled on a network of early Proterozoic orogenic belts. Small microcontinents and oceanic islands collided with and sutured onto the ever-growing Laurentia, and together formed the stable Precambrian craton seen today.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Geology of Russia</span> Overview of the geology of Russia

The geology of Russia, the world's largest country, which extends over much of northern Eurasia, consists of several stable cratons and sedimentary platforms bounded by orogenic (mountain) belts.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lufilian Arc</span>

The Lufilian Arc is part of a system of orogenic belts in southern Africa formed during the Pan-African orogeny, a stage in the formation of the Gondwana supercontinent. It extends across eastern Angola, the Katanga Province of the southern Democratic Republic of the Congo and the northwest of Zambia. The arc is about 800 kilometres (500 mi) long. It has global economic importance owing to its rich deposits of copper and cobalt.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Geology of South Africa</span> Origin and structure of the rock formations

The geology of South Africa is highly varied including cratons, greenstone belts, large impact craters as well as orogenic belts. The geology of the country is the base for a large mining sector that extracts gold, diamonds, iron and coal from world-class deposits. The geomorphology of South Africa consists of a high plateau rimmed to west, south and southeast by the Great Escarpment, and the rugged mountains of the Cape Fold Belt. Beyond this there is strip of narrow coastal plain.

The geology of Mozambique is primarily extremely old Precambrian metamorphic and igneous crystalline basement rock, formed in the Archean and Proterozoic, in some cases more than two billion years ago. Mozambique contains greenstone belts and spans the Zimbabwe Craton, a section of ancient stable crust. The region was impacted by major tectonic events, such as the mountain building Irumide orogeny, Pan-African orogeny and the Snowball Earth glaciation. Large basins that formed in the last half-billion years have filled with extensive continental and marine sedimentary rocks, including rocks of the extensive Karoo Supergroup which exist across Southern Africa. In some cases these units are capped by volcanic rocks. As a result of its complex and ancient geology, Mozambique has deposits of iron, coal, gold, mineral sands, bauxite, copper and other natural resources.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Geology of Tanzania</span>

The geology of Tanzania began to form in the Precambrian, in the Archean and Proterozoic eons, in some cases more than 2.5 billion years ago. Igneous and metamorphic crystalline basement rock forms the Archean Tanzania Craton, which is surrounded by the Proterozoic Ubendian belt, Mozambique Belt and Karagwe-Ankole Belt. The region experienced downwarping of the crust during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic, as the massive Karoo Supergroup deposited. Within the past 100 million years, Tanzania has experienced marine sedimentary rock deposition along the coast and rift formation inland, which has produced large rift lakes. Tanzania has extensive, but poorly explored and exploited natural resources, including coal, gold, diamonds, graphite and clays.

The geology of Uganda extends back to the Archean and Proterozoic eons of the Precambrian, and much of the country is underlain by gneiss, argillite and other metamorphic rocks that are sometimes over 2.5 billion years old. Sedimentary rocks and new igneous and metamorphic units formed throughout the Proterozoic and the region was partially affected by the Pan-African orogeny and Snowball Earth events. Through the Mesozoic and Cenozoic, ancient basement rock has weathered into water-bearing saprolite and the region has experienced periods of volcanism and rift valley formation. The East Africa Rift gives rise to thick, more geologically recent sediment sequences and the country's numerous lakes. Uganda has extensive natural resources, particularly gold.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 Mishra, D.C.; Kumar, M. Ravi. Proterozoic orogenic belts and rifting of Indian cratons: Geophysical constraints. Geoscience Frontiers. 2013 March. 5: 25–41.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Mckenzie, N. Ryan; Hughes, Nigel C.; Myrow, Paul M.; Banerjee, Dhiraj M.; Deb, Mihir; Planavsky, Noah J. New age constraints for the Proterozoic Aravalli–Delhi successions of India and their implications. Precambrian Research. 2013 November. 238: 120–128.
  3. ↑ Verma, P. K.; Greiling, R. O. (1 December 1995). "Tectonic evolution of the Aravalli orogen (NW India): an inverted Proterozoic rift basin?". Geologische Rundschau. 84 (4): 683–696. Bibcode:1995GeoRu..84..683V. doi:10.1007/BF00240560. ISSN   1432-1149. S2CID   129382615.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Verma, P.K.; Greiling, R.O.. Tectonic evolution of the Aravalli Orogen (NW India): an inverted Proterozoic rift basin?. Geol Rundsch. 1995 August. 84: 683–696.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 Kaur, Parampreet; Zeh, Armin; Chaudhri, Naveen; Gerdes, Axel; Okrusch, Martin. Archaean to Paleoproterozoic crustal evolution of the Aravalli mountain range, NW India, and its hinterland: The U-Pb and Hf isotope record of detrital zircon. Precambrian Research. 2011 March. 187: 155–164.
  6. 1 2 Lente, B. Van; Ashwal, L.D.; Pandit, M.K.; Bowring, S.A.; Torsvik, T.H.. Neoproterozoic hydrothermally altered basaltic rocks from Rajasthan, northwest India: Implications for late Precambrian tectonic evolution of the Aravalli Craton. Precambrian Research. 2009 January; 170: 202–222.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Rao, V. Vijaya; Prasad, B. Rajendra; Reddy, P.R.; Tewari, H.C.. Evolution of Proterozoic Aravalli Delhi Fold Belt in the northwestern Indian Shield from seismic studies. Tectonophysics. 2000 June. 327 (1–2): 109–130.
  8. 1 2 Sinha-Roy, S.; Malhotra, G.; Guha, D.B.. A transect across Rajasthan Precambrian terrain in relation to geology, tectonics and crustal evolution of south-central Rajasthan. In: Sinha-Roy, S., Gupta, K.R. (Eds.), Continental Crust of NW and Central India. Geological Society, India. 1995. 31: 63–89.
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Meert, Joseph G.; Pandit, Manoj K.. The Archean and Proterozoic history of Peninsular India: tectonic framework or Precambrian sedimentary basins in India. In: Mazumder, R. & Eriksson, P. G. (eds), Precambrian Basins of India: Stratigraphic and Tectonic Context. Geological Society, London. 2015 March. 43: 29–54
  10. ↑ Roy, A.B., Jakhar, S.R., 2002. Geology of Rajasthan (Northwest India). Precambrian to Recent. Scientific Publishers (India), Jodhpur, 421 pp.
  11. ↑ Gupta, S.N.; Arora, Y.K.; Mathur, R.K.; Iqbaluddin, Prasad B.; Sahai, T.N.; Sharma, S.B.. The Precambrian geology of the Aravalli region, southern Rajasthan and northeastern Gujarat. Geological Survey India. 1997. 123: 262.
  12. ↑ Choudhary AK, Gopalan K, Sastry CA (1984) Present status of the geochronology of the Precambrian rocks of Rajasthan. Tectonophysics 105: 131–140.
  13. ↑ Naqvi SM, Divakar Rao V, Hari Narain (1974) The protocontinental growth of the Indian Shield and the antiquity of its rift valleys. Precambrian. Res 1: 345–398.
  14. ↑ Condie, K.C.; Beyer, E.; Belousova, E.; Griffin, W.L.; O’Reilly, S.Y.. U–Pb isotopic ages and Hf isotopic composition of single zircons: the search for juvenile Precambrian continental crust. Precambrian Research. 2005. 139: 42–100.
  15. ↑ Mathur, RK; Prasad, B; Sharma, BS; Iqbaluddin. Synsedimentational shoreline volcanism in Aravalli of Rajasthan. Geological Survey India News. 1978.
  16. ↑ Deb, M., Talwar, A.K., Tewari, A., Banerjee, A.K., 1995. Bimodal volcanism in South Delhi fold belt: a suite of differentiated felsic lava at Jharivav, north Gujarat. In: Sinha-Roy, S., Gupta, K.R. (Eds.), Continental Crust of NW and Central India. Geol. Soc. India, Memoir 31, pp. 259–278.
  17. 1 2 3 4 5 Turner, Candler C.; Meert, Joseph G.; Pandit, Manoj K.; Kamenov, George D.. A detrital zircon U-PB and HF isotopic transect across the Son Valley sector of the Vindhyan Basin India: Implications for basin evolution and paleogeography. Gondawa Research. 2013 June. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2013.07.009
  18. ↑ Azmi, R.J.; Joshi, D.; Tewari, B.N.. 2008. A synoptic view on the current discordant geo- and biochronological ages of the Vindhyan Supergroup, central India. Journal of Himalayan Geology. 29: 177–191.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.