Terrorism in Africa

Last updated

Terrorism in Africa includes terrorist attacks made by jihadists and other ideological groups.

Contents

The African continent has been affected by significant terrorist activity across the continent, involving various terrorist groups responsible for widespread violence and instability. [1] [2] In East Africa, Salafi jihadist [3] group Al-Shabaab [4] has been a central figure in conflicts, particularly in Somalia and Kenya. [5] [6] North and West Africa have seen major incidents tied to salafi jihadist groups like Boko Haram, [7] [2] [8] which has caused severe disruptions in Nigeria and neighboring countries. Countries such as Egypt, [9] [10] [11] Algeria, Tunisia, [12] [13] [14] and Morocco [15] [16] have experienced deadly attacks linked to terrorist networks. These activities have led to extensive casualties and displacement across the region. Civilians have been the main targets of terrorist attacks. [17] [18]

French political scientist Gilles Kepel also identified a specific Salafist form of jihadism in the 1990s. [19] The original use of the term "jihadist Salafists", also spelled "Salafi-jihadi" or "Salafist jihadis". [20] [21] [22] [23] [24]

The largest Salafi jihadist terrorist operation is considered to be the September 11 attacks against the United States perpetrated by al-Qaeda in 2001. [25]

Salafi jihadism in Africa

According to political scientist Gilles Kepel, Salafi jihadism combined "respect for the sacred texts in their most literal form, ... with an absolute commitment to jihad, whose number-one target had to be America, perceived as the greatest enemy of the faith." [26] The Egyptian islamic movements of 1950s are generally considered to be the precursors of contemporary Salafi-Jihadist movements. [27] The theological doctrines of the Syrian-Egyptian Islamic scholar Sayyid Rashid Rida (1865–1935 CE) greatly influenced these movements.

Rida's ideas would set the foundations of future Salafi-Jihadist movements and greatly influence Islamists like Hasan al-Banna, Sayyid Qutb, and other Islamic fundamentalist figures. [28] [29] [30] [31] Rida's treatises laid the theological framework of future militants who would eventually establish the Salafi-Jihadi movement. [32] [33]

In the 1990s, Salafi jihadists [34] of the al-Jama'a al-Islamiyya were active in the terrorist attacks on police, government officials, and foreign tourists in Egypt, and the Armed Islamic Group of Algeria was a principal extremist group in the Algerian Civil War. [35] In Afghanistan, the Taliban were adherents of the Deobandi, not the Salafi school of Islam, but they closely co-operated with bin Laden and various Salafi-jihadist leaders. [35]

Ideologists of Salafi jihadism

Leaders"Theoreticians" of Salafist jihadism included Afghan jihad veterans such as the Palestinian Abu Qatada, the Syrian Mustafa Setmariam Nasar, the Egyptian Mustapha Kamel, known as Abu Hamza al-Masri. [36] Osama bin Laden was its most well-known leader. The dissident Saudi preachers Salman al-Ouda and Safar Al-Hawali, were held in high esteem by this school. Al Qaeda leader Ayman Al Zawahiri would praise Sayyid Qutb, stating that Qutb's call formed the ideological inspiration for the contemporary Salafi-Jihadist movement. [37] Other leading figures in the movement include Anwar al-Awlaki, former leader of Al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP); [38] Abu Bakar Bashir, leader of the banned Indonesian militant group (Jema'ah Islamiyah); Nasir al-Fahd, Saudi Arabian Salafi-Jihadist scholar who opposes the Saudi state, and reportedly pledged allegiance to ISIS; [39] Mohammed Yusuf, the founder of the Nigerian Boko Haram; [40] Omar Bakri Muhammad, [41] Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi, leader of terrorist group Islamic State of Iraq and Levant; [42] [43] etc.

(Data from A Persistent Threat, The Evolution of al Qa'ida and Other Salafi Jihadists, Seth G. Jones, 2014, Figure 3.1) Salafist groups number.png
(Data from A Persistent Threat, The Evolution of al Qa’ida and Other Salafi Jihadists, Seth G. Jones, 2014, Figure 3.1)

Expansion of Salafi jihadism

Gilles Kepel writes that the Salafis whom he encountered in Europe in the 1980s, were "totally apolitical". However, by the mid-1990s, he met some who felt jihad in the form of "violence and terrorism" was "justified to realize their political objectives". The mingling of many Salafists who were alienated from mainstream European society with violent jihadists created "a volatile mixture". According to Bruce Livesey Salafist jihadists are currently a "burgeoning presence in Europe, having attempted more than 30 terrorist attacks among EU countries" from September 2001 to the beginning of 2005".

In his research, Seth Jones of the Rand Corporation finds that Salafi-jihadist numbers and activity have increased from 2007 to 2013. According to his research:

Salafi jihadist groups

Salafist jihadist groups include Al Qaeda, [44] Salafia Jihadia [45] the now defunct Algerian Armed Islamic Group (GIA), [26] and the Egyptian group Al-Gama'a al-Islamiyya which still exists.

Salafia Jihadia

Mohamed Fizazi. Ideologist of Salafia Jihadia Salafist Sheikh Mohamed Fizazi (Morocco).jpg
Mohamed Fizazi. Ideologist of Salafia Jihadia

Salafia Jihadia is a Salafi Jihadist terrorist group based in Morocco and Spain. [45] The group was allied with al-Qaeda and Moroccan Islamic Combatant Group (GICM).

The group was known for its participation in the 2003 Casablanca bombings, in which 12 suicide bombers killed 33 people and injured over 100. Salafia Jihadia has variously been described as a movement or loose network of groups, or as a generic term applied by Moroccan authorities for militant Salafi activists. [46] [47]

Salafia Jihadia is said to function as a network of several loosely affiliated Salafi jihadist groups and cells, including groups such as al Hijra Wattakfir, Attakfir Bidum Hijra, Assirat al Mustaqim, Ansar al Islam and Moroccan Afghans. [48] [49] The spiritual leader and founder of the group is Mohammed Fizazi  [ fr; de ], former imam of the al-Quds Mosque (which was shut down by German authorities in 2010). [48] Fizazi was arrested in 2003 and sentenced to 30 years imprisonment for his radical statements and connection to the Casablanca bombings. [50] Salafia Jihadia has since spawned a wider ideological movement out of Saudi Arabia and the Gulf states. [45]

Al-Shabaab

Al-Shabaab is a transnational Salafi Jihadist [3] [51] military and political organization based in Somalia and active elsewhere in East Africa. It is actively involved in the ongoing Somali Civil War as an Islamist group, regularly invoking takfir to rationalize its terrorist attacks on Somali civilians and government forces. [52] Allied to the militant pan-Islamist organization al-Qaeda since 2012, it has also forged ties with al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb, and al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula.

Formed in the mid-2000s as a youth militia within the wider military wing of the Islamic Courts Union, al-Shabaab came to prominence during the 2006–2009 Ethiopian invasion and occupation of Somalia, during which it presented itself as a vehicle for the waging of armed resistance against the occupying Ethiopian army. In subsequent years, it gained popular support from Somalis and became a dominant force in south and central Somalia, defending large swathes of territory by fighting against the African Union

Gamaa Islamiyya

Al-Gama'a al-Islamiyya, (the Islamic Group) another Salafist-jihadi movement [34] fought an insurgency against the Egyptian government from 1992 to 1998 during which at least 800 Egyptian policemen and soldiers, jihadists, and civilians were killed. Outside of Egypt it is best known for a November 1997 attack at the Temple of Hatshepsut in Luxor where fifty-eight foreign tourists trapped inside the temple were hunted down and hacked and shot to death. The group declared a ceasefire in March 1999, [53] although as of 2012 it is still active in jihad against the Ba'athist Syrian regime. [34]

Flag of al-Qaeda Flag of al-Qaeda.svg
Flag of al-Qaeda

Al-Qaeda

Perhaps the most famous and effective Salafist jihadist group was Al-Qaeda. [54] Al-Qaeda evolved from the Maktab al-Khidamat (MAK), or the "Services Office", a Muslim organization founded in 1984 to raise and channel funds and recruit foreign mujahideen for the war against the Soviets in Afghanistan. It was established in Peshawar, Pakistan, by Osama bin Laden and Abdullah Yusuf Azzam.

Salafia Jihadia in the Sinai

Salafia Jihadia in the Sinai was established in 2012 by Mohammed al-Zawahiri, [55] it was created in order to fight Egyptian Security Forces and Israeli forces in the Sinai and Gaza Strip. [56]

The group, and many other groups in the Sinai Peninsula, has ties with Al-Qaeda, [57] and was one of the many groups who committed terrorist attacks on civilians and Egyptian Armed Forces during many periods of terrorist attacks in the Sinai in 2012 through 2013. [58]

Dawla Islamiyya (ISIS)

In Syria and Iraq both Jabhat al-Nusra and ISIS [59] have been described as Salafist-jihadist. Originating in the Jaish al-Ta'ifa al-Mansurah founded by Abu Omar al-Baghdadi in 2004, the organization (primarily under the Islamic State of Iraq name) affiliated itself with al-Qaeda in Iraq and fought alongside them during the 2003–2006 phase of the Iraqi insurgency. The group later changed their name to Islamic State of Iraq and Levant for about a year, [60] [61] before declaring itself to be a worldwide caliphate, [62] [63] called simply the Islamic State. [64] They are a transnational Salafi jihadist group and an unrecognised quasi-state. IS gained global prominence in 2014, when their militants conquered large territories in northwestern Iraq and eastern Syria, taking advantage of the ongoing civil war in Syria and the disintegrating local military forces of Iraq. By the end of 2015, their self-declared caliphate ruled an area with a population of about 12 million, [65] [66] where they enforced their extremist interpretation of Islamic law, managed an annual budget exceeding US$1 billion, and commanded more than 30,000 fighters. [67] After a grinding conflict with American, Iraqi, and Kurdish forces, IS lost control of all their Middle Eastern territories by 2019, subsequently reverting to insurgency from remote hideouts while continuing their propaganda efforts. These efforts have garnered a significant following in northern and Sahelian Africa, [68] [69] where IS still controls a significant territory, and the war against the Islamic State continues. [70] [71]

Jabhat al-Nusra

Jabhat al-Nusra has been described as possessing "a hard-line Salafi-Jihadist ideology" and being one of "the most effective" groups fighting the regime. [72] Writing after ISIS victories in Iraq, Hassan Hassan believes ISIS is a reflection of "ideological shakeup of Sunni Islam's traditional Salafism" since the Arab Spring, where salafism, "traditionally inward-looking and loyal to the political establishment", has "steadily, if slowly", been eroded by Salafism-jihadism. [59]

Boko Haram

Boko Haram in Nigeria is a Salafi jihadist group [73] that has killed tens of thousands of people, displaced 2.3 million from their homes. [74]

Jund Ansar-Allah

Jund Ansar Allah is, or was, an armed Salafist jihadist organization in the Gaza Strip. On August 14, 2009, the group's spiritual leader, Sheikh Abdel Latif Moussa, announced during Friday sermon the establishment of an Islamic emirate in the Palestinian territories attacking the ruling authority, the Islamist group Hamas, for failing to enforce Sharia law. Hamas forces responded to his sermon by surrounding his Ibn Taymiyyah mosque complex and attacking it. In the fighting that ensued, 24 people (including Sheikh Abdel Latif Moussa himself) were killed and over 130 were wounded. [75]

Other Salafi terrorist groups

According to Mohammed M. Hafez, "as of 2006 the two major groups within the jihadi Salafi camp" in Iraq were the Mujahidin Shura Council and the Ansar al Sunna Group. [76] There are also a number of small jihadist Salafist groups in Azerbaijan. [77]

In 2011, Salafist jihadists were actively involved with protests against King Abdullah II of Jordan, [78] and the kidnapping and killing of Italian peace activist Vittorio Arrigoni in Hamas-controlled Gaza Strip. [79] [80]

Terrorism by countries and regions

Egypt

Terrorism in Egypt in the 20th and 21st centuries has targeted the Egyptian government officials, Egyptian police and Egyptian army members, tourists, Sufi Mosques and the Christian minority. Many attacks have been linked to Islamic extremism, and terrorism increased in the 1990s when the Salafi jihadist movement al-Gama'a al-Islamiyya targeted high-level political leaders and killed hundreds – including civilians – in its pursuit of implementing traditional Sharia law in Egypt.

Ayman al-Zawahiri, an Egyptian doctor and leader of Egyptian Islamic Jihad group, was believed to be behind the operations of al-Qaeda. As of 2015, four of 30 people on the United States Federal Bureau of Investigation "most wanted" terrorist list are Egyptian.

Burkina Faso

Terrorism in Burkina Faso refers to non-state actor violence in Burkina Faso carried out with the intent of causing fear and spreading extremist ideology. Terrorist activity primarily involves religious terrorism conducted by foreign-based organizations, although some activity occurs because of communal frustration over the lack of economic development. [81] [82] Recent attacks have concentrated in the Hauts-Bassins, Boucle du Mouhoun, Nord, Sahel, and Est regions, along the border with Mali and Niger. [83] A series of attacks in Ouagadougou in 2016, 2017, and 2018 by al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb and its affiliates garnered international attention. [84] [85] [86]

Counter-terrorism efforts by Burkina Faso include domestic and regional security efforts, preventing terrorism-related economic transactions, and cooperating with the West, often through partnerships like the G5 Sahel and Trans-Sahara Counterterrorism Partnership. [81] Security force violence and alleged human rights abuses have regularly undermined these efforts. [87] In response to the growing attacks, the government declared a state of emergency in December 2018 in several northern provinces. [88] The failure of the government to stem terrorist attacks led to the 2019 resignation of former Prime Minister Paul Thieba. [89] Overall, terrorism has had a significant impact in Burkina Faso, displacing more than 100,000 people and diminishing access to public services. [90] [91]

List of Salafi jihadist groups

According to Seth G. Jones at the RAND Corporation, as of 2014, there were around 50 Salafist-jihadist groups in existence or recently in existence ("present" in the list indicates a group's continued existence as of 2014). (Jones defines Salafi-jihadist groups as those groups which emphasize the importance of returning to a "pure" form of Islam, the form of Islam which was practiced by the Salaf, the pious ancestors; and those groups which believe that violent jihad is fard ‘ayn (a personal religious duty).

Salafist-jihadist groupsin Africa as of 2014
Name of groupBase of operationsYears
Al-Itihaad al-Islamiya (AIAI) Somalia, Ethiopia 1994–2002
Al-Qaeda (core) Pakistan, Africa1988–present
al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb

(AQIM, formerly the Salafist Group for Preaching and Combat, GSPC)

 Algeria 1998–present
Al Takfir wal al-Hijrah Egypt (Sinai Peninsula)2011–present
Al-Mulathamun (Mokhtar Belmokhtar) Mali, Libya, Algeria2012–2013
Al-Murabitun (Mokhtar Belmokhtar)Mali, Libya, Algeria2013–2017
Alliance for the Re-liberation of Somalia-

Union of Islamic Courts (ARS/UIC)

Somalia, Eritrea 2006–2009
Ansar al-Sharia (Egypt) Egypt2012–present
Ansar al-Sharia (Libya) Libya2012–2017
Ansar al-Sharia (Mali) Mali2012–present
Ansar al-Sharia (Tunisia) Tunisia 2011–present
Ansar Bait al-Maqdis

(a.k.a. Ansar Jerusalem)

 Gaza Strip, Egypt (Sinai Peninsula)2012–present
Ansaru Nigeria 2012–present
Boko Haram Nigeria2003–present
Egyptian Islamic Jihad (EIJ)Egypt1978–2001
Harakat al-Shabaab al-Mujahideen Somalia2002–present
Harakat al-Shuada'a al Islamiyah

(a.k.a. Islamic Martyr's Movement, IMM)

Libya1996–2007
Harakat Ansar al-Din Mali2011–2017
Hizbul al Islam Somalia2009–2010
Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL)Iraq, Syria2004–present
Jaish al-Islam

(a.k.a. Tawhid and Jihad Brigades)

Gaza Strip, Egypt (Sinai Peninsula)2005–present
Jamaat Ansar Bayt al-MaqdisEgypt (Sinai Peninsula)2011–present
Libyan Islamic Fighting Group (LIFG)Libya1990–present
Moroccan Islamic Combatant Group (GICM) Morocco, Western Europe 1998–present
Movement for Tawhid and Jihad in West Africa

(MUJAO)

Mali2011–2013
Muhammad Jamal Network (MJN)Egypt2011–present
Mujahideen Shura Council Gaza Strip, Egypt (Sinai Peninsula)2011–present
Salafia Jihadia (As-Sirat al Moustaquim)Morocco1995–present
Tunisian Combat Group (TCG)Tunisia, Western Europe2000–2011

References

  1. ↑ Kepel, Gilles, Jihad, (2003)
  2. 1 2 "Chad troops kill 17 Boko Haram militants after 6 killed in Lake Chad attacks". The Defense Post. 29 September 2018. Retrieved 18 March 2019.
  3. 1 2 Marchal, Roland (March 2019). "War and Peace in Somalia". academic.oup.com. Retrieved 2024-08-27.
  4. ↑ "In prison with al-Shabab: What drives Somali militants?". BBC News. 5 October 2013. Archived from the original on 5 January 2019. Retrieved 4 January 2019.
  5. ↑ "Terrorist Attacks in Kenya Reveal Domestic Radicalization". Combating Terrorism Center at West Point. 29 October 2012. Archived from the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 18 March 2019.
  6. ↑ "The Nairobi Attack and Al-Shabab's Media Strategy". Combating Terrorism Center at West Point. 24 October 2013. Archived from the original on 23 September 2018. Retrieved 18 March 2019.
  7. ↑ "Who are Somalia's al-Shabab?". BBC News. 22 December 2017. Archived from the original on 3 April 2015. Retrieved 4 January 2019.
  8. ↑ "Northeast Nigeria insurgency has killed almost 350,000 – UN". Reuters. 24 June 2021. Archived from the original on 15 August 2021. Retrieved 13 February 2022.
  9. ↑ Welle (www.dw.com), Deutsche. "Egypt kills 40 suspected militants after tourist bus attack | DW | 29 December 2018". Deutsche Welle. Retrieved 20 March 2019.
  10. ↑ "Fearing the worst". Al-Ahram Weekly. 5 May 2005. Archived from the original on 24 September 2013. Retrieved 2 May 2014.
  11. ↑ "Mass funeral to be held for Helwan church victims: Coptic Orthodox Church – Egypt Independent". 29 December 2017. Archived from the original on 31 December 2017. Retrieved 30 December 2017.
  12. ↑ Reinares, Fernando (2016). Al-Qaeda's Revenge: The 2004 Madrid Train Bombings. Columbia University Press. p. 88. ISBN   978-0-231-80140-9.
  13. ↑ "Fifteen Years after the Djerba Synagogue Bombing". Combating Terrorism Center at West Point. 14 April 2017. Archived from the original on 6 December 2018. Retrieved 18 March 2019.
  14. ↑ Marszal, Andrew (18 March 2015). "Gunmen 'take hostages' in attack on Tunisia parliament". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on 18 March 2015. Retrieved 18 March 2015.
  15. ↑ "Hundreder af tikkende bomber i landet, som Islamisk Stat styrede udenom i syv år". jyllands-posten.dk. 20 December 2018. Archived from the original on 7 April 2019. Retrieved 23 December 2018.
  16. ↑ "FOCUS – Morocco reforms religious education to fight extremism". France 24. 13 December 2016. Retrieved 27 December 2018.
  17. ↑ "População captura supostos membros do grupo armado que atacou Mocímboa da Praia". Verdade.co.mz. Archived from the original on 26 December 2017. Retrieved 27 December 2017.
  18. ↑ "AU confirms ISIS infiltration in East Africa". The Independent (Uganda) . 24 May 2018. Archived from the original on 23 August 2018. Retrieved 31 May 2018.
  19. ↑ Kepel, Gilles (2021) [2000]. Jihad: The Trail of Political Islam . Bloomsbury Revelations (5th ed.). London: Bloomsbury Academic. pp. 219–222. ISBN   9781350148598. OCLC   1179546717.
  20. ↑ Poljarevic, Emin (2021). "Theology of Violence-oriented Takfirism as a Political Theory: The Case of the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (ISIS)". In Cusack, Carole M.; Upal, M. Afzal (eds.). Handbook of Islamic Sects and Movements. Brill Handbooks on Contemporary Religion. Vol. 21. Leiden and Boston: Brill Publishers. pp. 485–512. doi: 10.1163/9789004435544_026 . ISBN   978-90-04-43554-4. ISSN   1874-6691.
  21. ↑ French, Nathan S. (2020). "A Jihadi-Salafi Legal Tradition? Debating Authority and Martyrdom". And God Knows the Martyrs: Martyrdom and Violence in Jihadi-Salafism. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 36–69. doi:10.1093/oso/9780190092153.003.0002. ISBN   9780190092153. LCCN   2019042378. Archived from the original on 2023-01-11. Retrieved 2021-09-26.
  22. ↑ Baele, Stephane J. (October 2019). Giles, Howard (ed.). "Conspiratorial Narratives in Violent Political Actors' Language" (PDF). Journal of Language and Social Psychology . 38 (5–6). SAGE Publications: 706–734. doi: 10.1177/0261927X19868494 . hdl: 10871/37355 . ISSN   1552-6526. S2CID   195448888 . Retrieved 3 January 2022.
  23. ↑ Meleagrou-Hitchens, Alexander; Hughes, Seamus; Clifford, Bennett (2021). "The Ideologues". Homegrown: ISIS in America (1st ed.). London and New York: I.B. Tauris. pp. 111–148. ISBN   978-1-7883-1485-5. Archived from the original on 2023-01-11. Retrieved 2021-11-07.
  24. ↑ Kramer, Martin (Spring 2003). "Coming to Terms: Fundamentalists or Islamists?". Middle East Quarterly . X (2): 65–77. Archived from the original on 2015-01-01. Retrieved 2015-01-01. French academics have put the term into academic circulation as 'jihadist-Salafism.' The qualifier of Salafism – an historical reference to the precursor of these movements – will inevitably be stripped away in popular usage.
  25. ↑ "The Global Salafi Jihad". the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States. July 9, 2003. Archived from the original on 2 March 2015. Retrieved 1 June 2015.
  26. 1 2 Kepel, Gilles (2006). Jihad By Gilles Kepel, Anthony F. Roberts. Bloomsbury Publishing PLC. ISBN   9781845112578. Archived from the original on 14 June 2014. Retrieved 24 October 2014.
  27. ↑ Farid Shapoo, Sajid (19 July 2017). "Salafi Jihadism – An Ideological Misnomer". ResearchGate. Archived from the original on 19 Aug 2021.
  28. ↑ "Muhammad Rashid Rida". Encyclopedia of the Middle East. 23 April 2019. Archived from the original on 14 December 2021. Retrieved 22 September 2021.
  29. ↑ C. Martin, Richard (2016). "State and Government". Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World, Second Edition. 27500 Drake Rd. Farmington Hills, MI: Gale Publishers. p. 1088. ISBN   978-0-02-866269-5.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
  30. ↑ A. Turner, John (2014). "Chapter 7: The Rise of Salafi Jihadism and the Al-Qaeda Ideology". Religious Ideology and the Roots of the Global Jihad: Salafi Jihadism and International Order. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 114. doi:10.1057/9781137409577. ISBN   978-1-349-48873-5.
  31. ↑ M. Bennett, Andrew (2013). "Islamic History & Al-Qaeda: A Primer to Understanding the Rise of Islamist Movements in the Modern World". Pace International Law Review Online. 3 (10). PACE UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF LAW: 344–345. Archived from the original on 2021-09-21. Retrieved 2021-09-22– via DigitalCommons.
  32. ↑ R. Farmer, Brian (2007). "4: Islamism and Terrorism". Understanding Radical Islam: Medieval Ideology in the Twenty-first Century. New York, 29 Broadway, NY 10006, USA: Peter Land Publishing Inc. p. 80. ISBN   978-0-8204-8843-1.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
  33. ↑ Tran, Edwin (2 March 2021). "Family tree of Islamist extremism". Encyclopedia Geopolitica. Archived from the original on 7 August 2022.
  34. 1 2 3 "Former militants of Egypt's Al-Gama'a al-Islamiya struggle for political success" (PDF). Terrorism Monitor (Jamestown Foundation). X (18): 1. September 27, 2012. Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 May 2015. Retrieved 27 May 2015.
  35. 1 2 "Jihadist-Salafism" is introduced by Gilles Kepel, Jihad: The Trail of Political Islam (Harvard: Harvard University Press, 2002) pp.219-222
  36. ↑ "Jihadist-Salafism" is introduced by Gilles Kepel, Jihad: The Trail of Political Islam (Harvard: Harvard University Press, 2002), p. 220
  37. ↑ al-Saleh, Huda (21 March 2018). "After Saudi Crown Prince's pledge to eliminate Brotherhood, Zawahri defends them". AlArabiya News. Archived from the original on 31 March 2021.
  38. ↑ Richey, Warren. "To turn tables on ISIS at home, start asking unsettling questions, expert says". Christian Science Monitor. ISSN   0882-7729. Archived from the original on 2 March 2016. Retrieved 2 March 2016.
  39. ↑ Scheuer, Michael (20 January 2011). Osama Bin Laden. Oxford University Press. p. 247. ISBN   9780199753277. Archived from the original on 11 January 2023. Retrieved 26 September 2021.
  40. ↑ Dowd, Robert A. (1 July 2015). Christianity, Islam, and Liberal Democracy: Lessons from Sub-Saharan Africa. Oxford University Press. p. 102. ISBN   9780190225216.
  41. ↑ Moghadam, Assaf (1 May 2011). The Globalization of Martyrdom: Al Qaeda, Salafi Jihad, and the Diffusion of Suicide Attacks. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 45. ISBN   9781421401447. Archived from the original on 24 April 2021. Retrieved 26 September 2021. Salafi Jihadist preachers such as Abu Hamza al-Masri and Omar Bakri Muhammad help inspire thousands of Muslim youth to develop a cultlike relationship to martyrdom in mosques
  42. ↑ "Who was Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi?", BBC, 28 October 2019, archived from the original on 20 November 2019, retrieved 24 March 2020
  43. ↑ Helfont, Samuel (12 November 2019), "What radicalized ISIS leader Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi?, Iraq's post-2003 chaos is actually to blame, not Saddam Hussein", The Washington Post , archived from the original on 24 September 2021, retrieved 26 September 2021
  44. ↑ El-Baghdadi, Iyad. "Salafis, Jihadis, Takfiris: Demystifying Militant Islamism in Syria". 15 January 2013. Archived from the original on April 10, 2013. Retrieved 10 March 2013.
  45. 1 2 3 "Moroccan Islamic Combatant Group". Stanford University. 6 August 2012. Retrieved 9 August 2016.
  46. ↑ Pargeter, Alison. "The Islamist Movement in Morocco". Terrorism Monitor. 3 (10). Jamestown Foundation.
  47. ↑ Kaye, Dalia Dassa (2008). More Freedom, Less Terror?: Liberalization and Political Violence in the Arab World. Rand Corporation. p. 151. ISBN   9780833045089.
  48. 1 2 Botha, Anneli (June 2008). "Terrorism in the Maghreb: The Transnationalisation of Domestic Terrorism: Chapter 3: Terrorism in Morocco". Institute for Security Studies.
  49. ↑ "Salafia Jihadia". Terrorism Research & Analysis Consortium. Retrieved 9 August 2016.
  50. ↑ Guidère, Mathieu (2012). Historical Dictionary of Islamic Fundamentalism. Scarecrow Press. p. 99. ISBN   9780810879652.
  51. ↑ "Conflict With Al-Shabaab in Somalia". Global Conflict Tracker. Retrieved 2024-08-27.
  52. ↑ Bacon 2022.
  53. ↑ "al-Gama'at al-Islamiyya Jama'a Islamia (Islamic Group, IG)". FAS Intelligence Resource Program. Archived from the original on 20 April 2015. Retrieved 27 May 2015.
  54. ↑ Jones, Seth G. (2014). A Persistent Threat: The Evolution of al Qa'ida and Other Salafi Jihadists (PDF). Rand Corporation. Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 April 2015. Retrieved 28 May 2015.
  55. ↑ Hassan, Ahmad; Bushra, Shadi; Boulton, Ralph (2015-08-05). "Prominent radical Islamist cleric dies in Egypt jail: security sources". Reuters . Retrieved 2023-06-25.
  56. ↑ Barnett, David (2012-11-19). "Sinai jihadists reportedly travel to Gaza to join Hamas in fight against Israel". Long War Journal . Retrieved 2023-07-01.
  57. ↑ Chenesseau, Thomas; Azzam, Chantal (2015). "Egypt". Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses. 7 (1): 91–95. ISSN   2382-6444. JSTOR   26351327.
  58. ↑ Salama, Vivian (2013-11-22). "What's Behind the Wave of Terror in the Sinai". The Atlantic . Retrieved 2023-07-01.
  59. 1 2 Hassan, Hassan (16 August 2014). "Isis: a portrait of the menace that is sweeping my homeland". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 9 May 2015. Retrieved 25 May 2015.
  60. ↑ "Al-Qaeda in Iraq confirms Syria's Nusra Front is part of its network". Al Arabiya . 9 April 2013. Archived from the original on 5 October 2022.
  61. ↑ Abouzeid, Rania (23 June 2014). "The Jihad Next Door: The Syrian roots of Iraq's newest civil war". Politico . Archived from the original on 19 January 2023.
  62. ↑ Roggio, Bill (29 June 2014). "ISIS announces formation of Caliphate, rebrands as 'Islamic State'". Long War Journal .
  63. ↑ Withnall, Adam (29 June 2014). "Iraq crisis: Isis changes name and declares its territories a new Islamic state with 'restoration of caliphate' in Middle East". The Independent. London.
  64. ↑ "What is Islamic State?". BBC News. 26 September 2014.
  65. ↑ Shinkman, Paul D. (27 December 2017). "ISIS By the Numbers in 2017". U.S. News & World Report .
  66. ↑ Birke, Sarah (5 February 2017). "How ISIS Rules". The New York Review of Books.
  67. ↑ Gerges, Fawaz A. (2016). ISIS: A History. Princeton University Press. pp. 21–22. ISBN   978-0-691-17000-8.
  68. ↑ "ISIS far from defeated in Syria: 2019 outlook (maps)". Al-Masdar News. 1 January 2019. Archived from the original on 7 April 2020. Retrieved 7 April 2019.
  69. ↑ "US-Led Allies Finishing Off 'Caliphate'". VOA News. 1 March 2019. Retrieved 7 April 2019.
  70. ↑ Brian Carter; Kathryn Tyson; Liam Karr; Peter Mills (17 May 2023). "Salafi Jihadi Movement Weekly Update, May 17, 2023". ISW, Critical Threats. Retrieved 4 January 2024.
  71. ↑ "JAS vs. ISWAP: The War of the Boko Haram Splinters" (PDF). Africa Briefing (196). Brussels, Dakar: Crisis Group: 2, 6. 28 March 2024.
  72. ↑ Benotman, Noman. "Jabhat al-Nusra, A Strategic Briefing" (PDF). circa 2012. Quilliam Foundation. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 July 2014. Retrieved 10 March 2013.
  73. ↑ Thurston, Alexander (2019). Search Results Boko Haram: The History of an African Jihadist Movement. Princeton University Press. p. 18. ISBN   9780691197081. Archived from the original on 11 January 2023. Retrieved 8 March 2021.
  74. ↑ "Nigeria's Boko Haram Kills 49 in Suicide Bombings". www.nytimes.com. Archived from the original on 2015-11-21.
  75. ↑ Al-Quds Al-Arabi (London), August 19, 2009.
  76. ↑ Hafez, Mohammed M. (2007). Suicide Bombers in Iraq By Mohammed M. Hafez. US Institute of Peace Press. ISBN   9781601270047. Archived from the original on 31 December 2013. Retrieved 24 October 2014.
  77. ↑ The Two Faces of Salafism in Azerbaijan Archived 2010-12-26 at the Wayback Machine . Terrorism Focus Volume: 4 Issue: 40, December 7, 2007, by: Anar Valiyev
  78. ↑ "Jordan protests: Rise of the Salafist Jihadist movement". BBC News. 22 April 2011. Archived from the original on 11 July 2014. Retrieved 24 October 2014.
  79. ↑ "Body of Italian found in Gaza Strip house-Hamas". Reuters. 15 April 2011. Archived from the original on 28 September 2014. Retrieved 24 October 2014.
  80. ↑ "Italian peace activist killed in Gaza". Al Jazeera English. Archived from the original on 2 September 2011. Retrieved 24 October 2014.
  81. 1 2 "Burkina Faso: Extremism & Counter-Extremism". Counter Extremism Project. 2016-12-19. Archived from the original on 2017-07-10. Retrieved 2019-02-23.
  82. ↑ "Burkina Faso Plagued by Terror Attacks, Rights Allegations". VOA. Archived from the original on 2019-02-18. Retrieved 2019-04-10.
  83. ↑ "Burkina Faso Travel Advisory Map - February 2019". U.S. Embassy in Burkina Faso. 2019-02-14. Archived from the original on 2019-03-25. Retrieved 2019-03-26.
  84. ↑ "Burkina Faso attack: Foreigners killed at luxury hotel". BBC News. 2016-01-16. Retrieved 2022-11-24.
  85. ↑ "Burkina Faso gun attack kills 18 people at cafe". BBC News. 2017-08-14. Retrieved 2022-11-24.
  86. ↑ "Burkina Faso attack: French embassy targeted in Ouagadougou". BBC News. 2018-03-02. Retrieved 2022-11-24.
  87. ↑ "Burkina Faso: Killings, Abuse in Sahel Conflict". Human Rights Watch. 2018-05-21. Archived from the original on 2019-04-06. Retrieved 2019-05-04.
  88. ↑ "Burkina Faso declares state of emergency in north following attacks". Reuters. 2018-12-31. Archived from the original on 2019-03-29. Retrieved 2019-03-29.
  89. ↑ Blake, James. "Terrorism Threatens a Former Oasis of Stability in West Africa". Foreign Policy. Archived from the original on 2019-03-26. Retrieved 2019-03-26.
  90. ↑ Dewast, Louise (2019-03-11). "The country where it's too dangerous to go to school". Archived from the original on 2019-05-04. Retrieved 2019-05-05.
  91. ↑ UNHCR (March 2019). "Country Operation Update - Burkina Faso". UNHCR. Archived from the original on 2019-05-05. Retrieved 2019-05-12.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.