Quasi-state

Not to be confused with protostates or deep state.

Map of the British Empire under Queen Victoria at the end of the nineteenth century. "Dominions" refers to all territories belonging to the Crown.

Maximum extent of the territory of the Islamic State (frequently described as a proto-state) in Iraq and Syria, on 21 May 2015 ^[1]

A quasi-state (sometimes referred to as a state-like entity ^[2] or formatively a proto-state ^{[3] [2]} ) is a political entity that does not represent a fully autonomous sovereign state with its own institutions. ^[4]

The precise definition of quasi-state in political literature fluctuates depending on the context in which it is used. It has been used by some modern scholars to describe the self-governing British colonies and dependencies that exercised a form of home rule but remained crucial parts of the British Empire and subject firstly to the metropole's administration. ^{[5] [6]} Similarly, the Republics of the Soviet Union, which represented administrative units with their own respective national distinctions, have also been described as quasi-states. ^[4]

In the 21st century usage, the term quasi-state has most often been evoked in reference to militant secessionist groups who claim, and exercise some form of territorial control over, a specific region, but which lack institutional cohesion. ^{[5] [ failed verification – see discussion ]} Such quasi-states include the Republika Srpska and Herzeg-Bosnia during the Bosnian War, ^[5] the Republic of Serbian Krajina during the Croatian War of Independence, ^[7] and Azawad during the 2012 Tuareg rebellion. ^[8] The Islamic State is also widely held to be an example of a modern quasi-state or proto-state. ^{[9] [2] [10] [11]}

History

Tuareg rebels in the short-lived proto-state of Azawad

The term "proto-state" has been used in reference to contexts as far back as Ancient Greece, to refer to the phenomenon that the formation of a large and cohesive nation would often be preceded by very small and loose forms of statehood. ^[12] For instance, historical sociologist Garry Runciman describes the evolution of social organisation in the Greek Dark Ages from statelessness, to what he calls semistates based on patriarchal domination but lacking inherent potential to achieve the requirements for statehood, sometimes transitioning into protostates with governmental roles able to maintain themselves generationally, which could evolve into larger, more centralised entities fulfilling the requirements of statehood by 700 BC in the archaic period. ^{[12] [13]}

Most ancient proto-states were the product of tribal societies, consisting of relatively short-lived confederations of communities that united under a single warlord or chieftain endowed with symbolic authority and military rank. ^[12] These were not considered sovereign states since they rarely achieved any degree of institutional permanence and authority was often exercised over a mobile people rather than measurable territory. ^[12] Loose confederacies of this nature were the primary means of embracing a common statehood by people in many regions, such as the Central Asian steppes, throughout ancient history. ^[14]

Proto-states proliferated in Western Europe during the Middle Ages, likely as a result of a trend towards political decentralisation following the collapse of the Western Roman Empire and the adoption of feudalism. ^[15] While theoretically owing allegiance to a single monarch under the feudal system, many lesser nobles administered their own fiefs as miniature "states within states" that were independent of each other. ^[16] This practice was especially notable with regards to large, decentralised political entities such as the Holy Roman Empire, that incorporated many autonomous and semi-autonomous proto-states. ^[17]

Following the Age of Discovery, the emergence of European colonialism resulted in the formation of colonial proto-states in Asia, Africa, and the Americas. ^[18] A few colonies were given the unique status of protectorates, which were effectively controlled by the metropole but retained limited ability to administer themselves, self-governing colonies, dominions, and dependencies. ^[5] These were distinct administrative units that each fulfilled many of the functions of a state without actually exercising full sovereignty or independence. ^[18] Colonies without a sub-national home rule status, on the other hand, were considered administrative extensions of the colonising power rather than true proto-states. ^[19] Colonial proto-states later served as the basis for a number of modern nation states, particularly on the Asian and African continents. ^[18]

During the twentieth century, some proto-states existed as not only distinct administrative units, but their own theoretically self-governing republics joined to each other in a political union such as the socialist federal systems observed in Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, and the Soviet Union. ^{[5] [4] [20]}

Territory controlled by the Anti-Fascist Council of Yugoslavia, which established its own proto-state in 1942

Another form of proto-state that has become especially common since the end of World War II ^{[ citation needed ]} is established through the unconstitutional seizure of territory by an insurgent or militant group that proceeds to assume the role of a de facto government. ^[9] Although denied recognition and bereft of civil institutions, insurgent proto-states may engage in external trade, provide social services, and even undertake limited diplomatic activity. ^[21] These proto-states are usually formed by movements drawn from geographically concentrated ethnic or religious minorities, and are thus a common feature of inter-ethnic civil conflicts. ^[22] This is often due to the inclinations of an internal cultural identity group seeking to reject the legitimacy of a sovereign state's political order, and create its own enclave where it is free to live under its own sphere of laws, social mores, and ordering. ^[22] Since the 1980s a special kind of insurgent statehood has emerged in form of the "Jihadi proto-state", as the Islamist concept of statehood is extremely flexible. For instance, a Jihadi emirate can be simply understood as a territory or group ruled by an emir; accordingly, it might rule a significant area or just a neighborhood. Regardless of its extent, the assumption of statehood provides Jihadi militants with important internal legitimacy and cementes their self-identification as frontline society opposed to certain enemies. ^[9]

The accumulation of territory by an insurgent force to form a sub-national geopolitical system and eventually, a proto-state, was a calculated process in China during the Chinese Civil War that set a precedent for many similar attempts throughout the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. ^[23] Proto-states established as a result of civil conflict typically exist in a perpetual state of warfare and their wealth and populations may be limited accordingly. ^[24] One of the most prominent examples of a wartime proto-state in the twenty-first century is the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant, ^{[25] [26] [27]} that maintained its own administrative bureaucracy and imposed taxes. ^[28]

Theoretical basis

The definition of a proto-state is not concise, and has been confused by the interchangeable use of the terms state, country, and nation to describe a given territory. ^[29] The term proto-state is preferred to "proto-nation" in an academic context, however, since some authorities also use nation to denote a social, ethnic, or cultural group capable of forming its own state. ^[29]

A proto-state does not meet the four essential criteria for statehood as elaborated upon in the declarative theory of statehood of the 1933 Montevideo Convention: a permanent population, a defined territory, a government with its own institutions, and the capacity to enter into relations with other states. ^[29] A proto-state is not necessarily synonymous with a state with limited recognition that otherwise has all the hallmarks of a fully functioning sovereign state, such as Rhodesia or the Republic of China, also known as Taiwan. ^[29] However, proto-states frequently go unrecognised since a state actor that recognises a proto-state does so in violation of another state actor's external sovereignty. ^[30] If full diplomatic recognition is extended to a proto-state and embassies exchanged, it is defined as a sovereign state in its own right and may no longer be classified as a proto-state. ^[30]

Territory of Croatia controlled by the Republic of Serbian Krajina proto-state 1991–1995

Throughout modern history, partially autonomous regions of larger recognised states, especially those based on a historical precedent or ethnic and cultural distinctiveness that places them apart from those who dominate the state as a whole, have been considered proto-states. ^[5] Home rule generates a sub-national institutional structure that may justifiably be defined as a proto-state. ^[31] When a rebellion or insurrection seizes control and begins to establish some semblance of administration in regions within national territories under its effective rule, it has also metamorphosed into a proto-state. ^[32] These wartime proto-states, sometimes known as insurgent states, may eventually transform the structure of a state altogether, or demarcate their own autonomous political spaces. ^[32] While not a new phenomenon, the modern formation of a proto-states in territory held by a militant non-state entity was popularised by Mao Zedong during the Chinese Civil War, and the national liberation movements worldwide that adopted his military philosophies. ^[23] The rise of an insurgent proto-state was sometimes also an indirect consequence of a movement adopting Che Guevara's foco theory of guerrilla warfare. ^[23]

Secessionist proto-states are likeliest to form in preexisting states that lack secure boundaries, a concise and well-defined body of citizens, or a single sovereign power with a monopoly on the legitimate use of military force. ^[33] They may be created as a result of putsches, insurrections, separatist political campaigns, foreign intervention, sectarian violence, civil war, and even the bloodless dissolution or division of the state. ^[33]

Proto-states can be important regional players, as their existence affects the options available to state actors, either as potential allies or as impediments to their political or economic policy articulations. ^[32]

List of proto-states

Constituent proto-states

Current

Proto-state	Parent state	Achieved statehood	Since	Source
Adygea	Russia	Russian Federation	1991	[5]
Åland	Finland	No	1921[ citation needed ]	[5] [34] [ additional citation(s) needed ]
Altai Republic	Russia	Russian Federation	1992	[5]
Aruba	Netherlands	No	1986[ citation needed ]	[5] [ additional citation(s) needed ]
Ashanti	Ghana	No	1957[ citation needed ]	[35] [ additional citation(s) needed ]
Azad Kashmir	Pakistan	No	1975[ citation needed ]	[5] [ additional citation(s) needed ]
Azawad	Mali	No	1975[ citation needed ]	[5] [ additional citation(s) needed ]
Azores	Portugal	No	1816[ citation needed ]	[5] [ additional citation(s) needed ]
Bashkortostan	Russia	Russian Federation	1990	[5]
British Virgin Islands	United Kingdom	No	1960	[5]
Bougainville	Papua New Guinea	De facto	2001	[5]
Buryatia	Russia	Russian Federation	1990	[5]
Canary Islands	Spain	No	1816[ citation needed ]	[5] [ additional citation(s) needed ]
Catalonia	Spain	No	1978	[5]
Cayman Islands	United Kingdom	No	1962	[5]
Chin State	Myanmar	No	1949[ citation needed ]	[5] [ additional citation(s) needed ]
Chinland	Myanmar	No	2023[ citation needed ]	[5] [ additional citation(s) needed ]
Christmas Island	Australia	No	1958[ citation needed ]	[5] [ additional citation(s) needed ]
Chuvashia	Russia	Russian Federation	1992	[5]
Cook Islands	New Zealand	De jure	1888	[5]
Corsica	France	No	1978[ citation needed ]	[5] [ additional citation(s) needed ]
Curaçao	Netherlands	No	2010[ citation needed ]	[5] [ additional citation(s) needed ]
Dagestan	Russia	Russian Federation	1991	[5]
Darfur	Sudan	Sudan	1991	[5]
Easter Island	Chile	No	1944[ citation needed ]	[5] [ additional citation(s) needed ]
Euskadi	Spain	No	1978	[5]
Falkland Islands	United Kingdom	No	1833[ citation needed ]	[5] [ additional citation(s) needed ]
Faroe Islands	Denmark	No	1948	[5]
Flanders	Belgium	No	1970[ citation needed ]	[5] [ additional citation(s) needed ]
French Polynesia	France	No	1847[ citation needed ]	[5] [ additional citation(s) needed ]
Galicia	Spain	No	1978	[5]
Greenland	Denmark	No	1816	[5]
Guam	United States	No	1816	[5]
Guernsey	United Kingdom	No	1204[ citation needed ]	[5] [ additional citation(s) needed ]
Indian reservations	United States	De jure	1658	[5]
Indigenous territory (Brazil)	Brazil	No	1850 [36]	[ citation needed ]
Ingushetia	Russia	Russian Federation	1992	[5]
Iraqi Kurdistan	Iraq	No	1991	[37]
Isle of Man	United Kingdom	De jure	1828	[5]
Jersey	United Kingdom	De jure	1204	[5]
Jewish Autonomous Oblast	Russia	Russian Federation	1934	[ citation needed ]
Jubaland	Somalia	No	2001	[note 1]
Kabardino-Balkaria	Russia	Russian Federation	1992	[5]
Kachin State	Myanmar	No	1949	[5]
Kalmykia	Russia	Russian Federation	1992	[5]
Karachay-Cherkessia	Russia	Russian Federation	1992	[5]
Karelia	Russia	Russian Federation	1991	[5]
Kayah State	Myanmar	No	1949	[5]
Kayin State	Myanmar	No	1949	[5]
Khakassia	Russia	Russian Federation	1992	[5]
Komi Republic	Russia	Russian Federation	1996	[5]
Madeira	Portugal	No	1816[ citation needed ]	[5] [ additional citation(s) needed ]
Mari El	Russia	Russian Federation	1990	[5]
Marquesas Islands	France	No	1844[ citation needed ]	[5] [ additional citation(s) needed ]
Montserrat	United Kingdom	No	1632[ citation needed ]	[5] [ additional citation(s) needed ]
Mon State	Myanmar	No	1949	[5]
Mordovia	Russia	Russian Federation	1994	[5]
New Caledonia	France	No	1853[ citation needed ]	[5] [ additional citation(s) needed ]
Northern Marianas	United States	No	1899	[5] [ additional citation(s) needed ]
North Ossetia-Alania	Russia	Russian Federation	1995	[5]
Nunavut	Canada	No	1999	[5] [ additional citation(s) needed ]
Puerto Rico	United States	No	1816	[5] [ additional citation(s) needed ]
Puntland	Somalia	No	1998	[40]
Quebec	Canada	No	1816	[5] [ additional citation(s) needed ]
Saint Helena	United Kingdom	No	1834	[5] [ additional citation(s) needed ]
Sakha Republic	Russia	Russian Federation	1991	[5]
Shan State	Myanmar	No	1949	[5]
Sint Maarten	Netherlands	No	2010	[5] [ additional citation(s) needed ]
South Tyrol	Italy	No	1926	[5] [ additional citation(s) needed ]
Svalbard	Norway	No	1992[ citation needed ]	[5] [ additional citation(s) needed ]
Tatarstan	Russia	Russian Federation	1990	[5]
Temotu	Solomon Islands	No	1981[ citation needed ]	[5] [ additional citation(s) needed ]
Turks and Caicos	United Kingdom	No	1973	[5] [ additional citation(s) needed ]
Tuva	Russia	Russian Federation	1992	[5]
Udmurtia	Russia	Russian Federation	1990	[5]
United States Virgin Islands	United States	No	1816	[5] [ additional citation(s) needed ]
Wallonia	Belgium	No	1970	[5]
Wa State	Myanmar	De facto	2010	[41] [42]
Zanzibar	Tanzania	No	1964	[5]

Former

Proto-state	Parent state	Achieved statehood	Dates	Ref
Adjara	Georgia	No	1921–2004	[5]
Armenian SSR	Transcaucasian SFSR   Soviet Union	Yes	1922–1991
Artsakh	Azerbaijan	De facto	1991-2023
Aruba	Netherlands	No	1986–1995[ clarify ]	[5]
Azerbaijan SSR	Transcaucasian SFSR   Soviet Union	Yes	1922–1991
Bophuthatswana	South Africa	De jure	1977–1994	[43]
Bosnia-Herzegovina	Yugoslavia	Yes	1943–1992	[20]
Byelorussian SSR	Russian SFSR   Soviet Union	Yes	1920–1991
Ciskei	South Africa	De jure	1981–1994	[43]
Croatia	Yugoslavia	Yes	1943–1991	[20]
Carpathian Ruthenia	Czechoslovakia	De facto	1938–1939
Czech Socialist Republic	Czechoslovakia	Yes	1969–1993	[33]
East Caprivi	South Africa	No	1972–1989	[43]
Estonian SSR	Soviet Union	Yes	1940–1941, 1944–1991
Finnish Socialist Workers' Republic	Finland	No	1918
Free State of Bottleneck	Prussia   Weimar Republic	No	1919-1923
Free Republic of Schwarzenberg	Soviet occupation zone in Germany	De facto	1945
Galician Ruthenians	Austria-Hungary	De facto	1848–1918
Gagauzia	Moldova	No	1991–1994	[5]
Gazankulu	South Africa	No	1971–1994	[43]
Georgian SSR	Transcaucasian SFSR   Soviet Union	Yes	1922–1991
Jammu and Kashmir	India	No	1921–2019	[5]
Hereroland	South Africa	No	1970–1989	[43]
KaNgwane	South Africa	No	1972–1994	[43]
Karelian ASSR	Russian SFSR   Soviet Union	union republic	1923–1940
Karelo-Finnish SSR	Soviet Union	No	1940–1956
Kavangoland	South Africa	No	1973–1989	[43]
Kazakh SSR	Soviet Union	Yes	1936–1991
Kirghiz SSR	Soviet Union	Yes	1936–1991
KwaNdebele	South Africa	No	1981–1994	[43]
KwaZulu	South Africa	No	1981–1994	[43]
Latvian SSR	Soviet Union	Yes	1940–1941, 1944–1991
Gonâve Island	Haiti	No	1920s
Lebowa	South Africa	No	1972–1994	[43]
Lithuanian SSR	Soviet Union	Yes	1940–1941, 1944–1990/1991
Macedonia	Yugoslavia	Yes	1945–1991	[20]
Montenegro	Yugoslavia   Serbia and Montenegro	Yes	1945–2006	[20]
Moldavian ASSR	Ukrainian SSR   Soviet Union	union republic	1924–1940
Moldavian SSR	Soviet Union	Yes	1940–1991
Ovamboland	South Africa	No	1973–1989	[43]
QwaQwa	South Africa	No	1974–1994	[43]
Russian SFSR	Soviet Union	Yes	1917–1991	[4]
Serbia	Yugoslavia   Serbia and Montenegro	Yes	1945–2006	[20]
Singapore	Malaysia	Yes	1963–1965	[5]
Slovak Socialist Republic	Czechoslovakia	Yes	1969–1993	[33]
Slovenia	Yugoslavia	Yes	1945–1991	[20]
South West Africa (Namibia)	South Africa	Yes	1915–1990	[44]
Southern Sudan	Sudan	Yes	2005–2011	[45]
Transkei	South Africa	De jure	1976–1994	[43]
Trucial States	United Kingdom	Yes	1820–1971	[46]
Tajik SSR	Soviet Union	Yes	1929–1991
Turkestan ASSR	Russian SFSR	No	1918–1924	[47]
Turkmen SSR	Soviet Union	Yes	1925–1991
Ukrainian People's Republic of Soviets	Russian SFSR	No	1917–1918
Ukrainian Soviet Republic	Russian SFSR	No	1918
Ukrainian SSR	Russian SFSR   Soviet Union	Yes	1919–1991	[48]
Uzbek SSR	Soviet Union	Yes	1924–1991
Venda	South Africa	De jure	1979–1994	[43]

Secessionist, insurgent, and self-proclaimed autonomous proto-states

Current

Proto-state	Parent state	Achieved statehood	Since	Source
Abkhazia	Georgia	De facto	1992
Al-Qaeda	Mali   Somalia	De facto	2006
Al-Shabaab	Somalia	No	2009	[49]
Allied Democratic Forces	Democratic Republic of the Congo   Uganda	No	1996	[50]
Ambazonia	Cameroon	No	2017
Ansar al-Sharia (Yemen)	Yemen	No	2011	[49]
Ansar al-Sunna	Mozambique	No	2020
Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria	Syria	Partial	2012	[51]
Cabinda	Angola	No	1975
Coalition of Patriots for Change	Central African Republic	No	2020
Houthi movement	Yemen	No	2004	[ needs update? ]
Islamic State	Iraq   Syria   Afghanistan   Somalia   Yemen   Nigeria   Libya   Mali   Mozambique	De facto	2013	[29] [52] [53]
Kachin	Myanmar	No	1961
Khatumo	Somalia	No	2012
Kosovo	Serbia	De facto	2008
Mai-Mai	Democratic Republic of the Congo	No	2015
National Democratic Alliance Army	Myanmar	No	1989
National Resistance Front of Afghanistan	Afghanistan	No	2021
Nduma Defense of Congo-Renovated	Democratic Republic of the Congo	No	2015
Northern Cyprus	Cyprus	De facto	1974
Oromo Liberation Front	Ethiopia	No	1973
Revolutionary Commando Army	Syria	No	2016
Sahrawi Republic	Morocco	Partial	1976	[54]
State of Palestine	Israel	De facto	1988
Somaliland	Somalia	De facto	1991
South Ossetia	Georgia	De facto	1991
Southern Transitional Council	Yemen	De facto	2017
Sudan Revolutionary Front	Sudan	No	2011
Syrian Interim Government	Syria	No	2013
Syrian Salvation Government	Syria	No	2017
Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan	Pakistan	No	2002	[49]
Tigray People's Liberation Front	Ethiopia	Partial	2020
Transnistria	Moldova	De facto	1990
Wa State	Myanmar	De facto	1989
West Papua	Indonesia	No	1971

Former

Proto-state	Parent state	Achieved statehood	Dates	Source
Al-Nusra Front	Syria	No	2012–2017	[52]
Ansar al-Islam	Iraq	No	2001–2003	[49]
Angola	Portugal	Yes	1961–1975
Ansar al-Sharia (Libya)	Libya	No	2014–2017	[52]
Ansar Dine	Mali	No	2012–2013	[52]
Donetsk People's Republic and   Luhansk People's Republic	Ukraine	De facto	2014–2022	[55]
Armed Forces of South Russia	Russia	No	1919–1920	[56]
Azawad	Mali	De facto	2012–2013	[8]
Boko Haram	Nigeria   Cameroon	No	2013–2015	[52]
Carpatho-Ukraine	Czechoslovakia   Hungary	De facto	1938–1939
Chechen Republic of Ichkeria	Russia	De facto	1991–2000	[30]
Chinese Soviet Republic	Republic of China	No	1931–1937	[23]
Communist China	Republic of China	Yes	1927–1949	[23]
Dar al-Kuti	Central African Republic	De facto	2015–2021	[57]
Dubrovnik Republic	Croatia	No	1991–1992	[5]
Eastern Slavonia, Baranja and Western Syrmia	Croatia	No	1995–1998	[5]
FARC	Colombia	No	1964–2017	[58]
Fatah al-Islam	Lebanon	No	2007	[49]
Fujian	Republic of China	No	1933–1934
Armed Islamic Group of Algeria	Algeria	No	1993–1995	[49]
Herzeg-Bosnia	Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina	No	1991–1996	[5]
Hyderabad State	Dominion of India	De facto	1947–1948	[5]
Idel-Ural State	Russia	No	1917–1918	[59]
Irish Republic	United Kingdom	Yes	1919–1922	[60]
Islamic Emirate of Kunar	Republic of Afghanistan	No	1989–1991	[49]
Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan	Islamic State of Afghanistan	De facto	1996–2001
Islamic Republic of Imbaba	Egypt	No	1989–1992	[49]
Jamiat-e Islami	Democratic Republic of Afghanistan	No	1982–1989	[61]
Republic of Kosova	FR Yugoslavia	No	1992–1999	[62]
Kharkiv People's Republic	Ukraine	No	2014	[63]
Jiangxi	Republic of China	No	1931–1937	[23]
Jubaland	Somalia	No	1998–2001	[38]
Junbish-e Milli	Republic of Afghanistan (until April 28)   Islamic State of Afghanistan (from April 28)	No	1992–1997	[64]
Liberated Yugoslavia	Independent State of Croatia Occupied Serbia	Yes	1942–1945	[65]
Mongolia	China	Yes	1911–1946
Mozambique	Portugal	Yes	1964–1974	[note 2]
Polish autonomy in the Vilnius Region	Lithuania	No	1988–1991
Revolutionary Vietnam	South Vietnam	No	1969–1976	[54]
Republika Srpska	Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina	No	1991–1995	[5]
Red Spears' rebel area in Dengzhou	Republic of China	No	1929	[66]
Serbian Krajina	Croatia	No	1991–1995	[67]
Sudetenland	Czechoslovakia	No	1918–1938	[68]
"Taylorland" or Greater Liberia	Liberia	No	1990–1995/97	[note 3]
Tamil Eelam	Sri Lanka	No	1983–2009	[58] [71] [72]
Tibet	Republic of China	No	1912–1951	[note 4]
Ukrainian National Government	Soviet Union   Nazi Germany	No	1941
Ukrainian People's Republic	Russian SFSR   Russian Republic	Yes	1917–1921
United States	Great Britain	Yes	1776–1783
West Ukrainian People's Republic	Austria-Hungary   Poland	No	1918–1919
Western Bosnia	Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina	No	1993–1995	[5]
Zapatista Autonomous Municipalities	Mexico	De facto	1994–2023
Zaporozhian Sich	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth	Yes	16th century–1649	[73]

See also

• Aspirant state
• Deep state
• Failed state
• List of sovereign states
• Nation-building
• Rump state
• Sovereign state
• State-building
• List of rebel groups that control territory

Notes and references

Annotations

1. Jubaland declared itself independent of Somalia in 1998. ^[38] It technically rejoined Somalia in 2001 when its ruling Juba Valley Alliance became part of the country's Transitional Federal Government. However, Jubaland has continued to persist as a more or less autonomous state. ^[39]
2. The erosion of Portuguese military control over northern Mozambique during the Mozambican War of Independence allowed local guerrillas to establish a proto-state there, which survived until the war ended in 1974. Home to about a million people, the miniature insurgent proto-state was managed by FRELIMO's civilian wing and was able to provide administrative services, open trade relations with Tanzania, and even supervise the construction of its own schools and hospitals with foreign aid. ^[21]
3. In course of the First Liberian Civil War, the Liberian central government effectively collapsed, allowing warlords to establish their own fiefs. One of the most powerful rebel leaders in Liberia, Charles Taylor, set up his own domain in a way resembling an actual state: He reorganised his militia into a military-like organisation (split into Army, Marines, Navy, and Executive Mansion Guard), established his de facto capital at Gbarnga, and created a civilian government and justice system under his control that were supposed to enforce law and order. The area under his control was commonly called "Taylorland" or "Greater Liberia" and even became somewhat stable and peaceful until it largely disintegrated in 1994/5 as result of attacks by rival militias. In the end, however, Taylor won the civil war and was elected President of Liberia, with his regime becoming the new central government. ^{[69] [70]}
4. See Tibetan sovereignty debate

References

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