Mari El

Last updated
Mari El Republic
Республика Марий Эл
Other transcription(s)
  Meadow MariМарий Эл Республик
  Hill MariМары Эл Республик
Coat of Arms of Mari El.svg
Anthem: "State Anthem of the Mari El Republic" [1]
Map of Russia (2014-2022) - Mari El (Crimea disputed).svg
Coordinates: 56°42′N47°52′E / 56.700°N 47.867°E / 56.700; 47.867
Country Russia
Federal district Volga [2]
Economic region Volga-Vyatka [3]
Capital Yoshkar-Ola
Government
  Body State Assembly [4]
   Head [4] Yury Zaitsev [5]
Area
[6]
  Total23,375 km2 (9,025 sq mi)
  Rank 72nd
Population
  Total672,093
  Estimate 
(2018) [8]
682,333
  Rank 64th
  Density29/km2 (74/sq mi)
   Urban
68.4%
   Rural
31.6%
Time zone UTC+3 (MSK   OOjs UI icon edit-ltr-progressive.svg [9] )
ISO 3166 code RU-ME
License plates 12
OKTMO ID88000000
Official languages Russian ; [10]   Mari (Meadow and Hill variants) [11]
Website https://mari-el.gov.ru/
People Mari
Language Marij
Country Mari El

Mari El, [lower-alpha 1] officially the Mari El Republic, [lower-alpha 2] is a republic of Russia. It is in the European region of the country, along the northern bank of the Volga River, and administratively part of the Volga Federal District. The republic has a population of 696,459 (2010 Census). [12] Yoshkar-Ola is the capital and largest city.

Contents

Mari El, one of Russia's ethnic republics, was established for the indigenous Mari people, a Finno-Ugric nation who have traditionally lived along the Volga and Kama Rivers. The majority of the republic's population are ethnic Russians (52.5%), with a significant Mari minority (40.1%), and smaller minority populations of Tatars and Chuvash. The official languages are Russian and Mari. Mari El is bordered by Nizhny Novgorod Oblast to the west, Kirov Oblast to the north, Tatarstan to the east, and Chuvashia to the south.

Geography

Bolshaya Kokshaga River Turisty na reke Bol'shaia Kokshaga.jpg
Bolshaya Kokshaga River

The Republic is located in the eastern part of the East European Plain of Russia, along and mostly to the north of the Volga River. The swampy Mari Depression is in the west of the Republic, contrasted by hillier landscapes in the east where the highest point of the Republic (at 278 metres (912 ft) [13] ) is located. The Republic borders with Kirov Oblast in the north and east, the Republic of Tatarstan in the southeast and south, the Chuvash Republic in the south, and with Nizhny Novgorod Oblast in the west and north.[ citation needed ]

There are 476 rivers in the Republic, with the Volga and its tributaries being the major water arteries. Most rivers are considered to be minor—10–50 m (33–164 ft) wide and 0.5–1.4 m (1 ft 8 in – 4 ft 7 in) deep—and usually freeze between mid-November and mid-April. There are over 700 lakes and ponds; many located in the swampy areas and have areas of less than 1 km2 (0.39 sq mi) and depths of 1–3 m (3 ft 3 in – 9 ft 10 in). Lake Yalchik, occupying 150 hectares (370 acres), is the largest by area, while Lake Tabashinskoye is the deepest. Swamps cover large areas—10–70 km2 (3.9–27.0 sq mi) and up to 100 km2 (39 sq mi)—and usually freeze in December. While swamps tend to be shallow, with an average depth of 0.5–1.5 m (1 ft 8 in – 4 ft 11 in), they are impassable in fall and spring due to flooding.[ citation needed ]

Climate is moderately continental, with moderately cold and snowy winters and warm and often rainy summers. The average temperatures range from 18–20 °C (64–68 °F) in summer to −18 – −20 °C (0 – −4 °F) in winter. November is the windiest month of the year. Annual precipitation varies from 450 to 500 mm (18 to 20 in).

There are virtually no natural resources of industrial significance in the Republic. Other resources include peat, mineral waters, and limestone. About 50% of the Republic's territory is forested, although the level of forestation varies significantly from one district to another.[ citation needed ]

History

Geographical map of the Mari El Republic. MariEl03.png
Geographical map of the Mari El Republic.

Ancient Mari tribes were known since the 5th century, though archaeologists suspect that the Mari culture is much older in its roots. Later their area was a tributary of Volga Bulgaria and the Golden Horde. In the 1440s it was incorporated into the Khanate of Kazan and was occupied by the Tsardom of Russia (governed by Ivan the Terrible) after the fall of Kazan in 1552.

After the Russian Revolution, under the Bolshevik regime, the Mari Autonomous Oblast was established on 4 November 1920. It was re-organized into the Mari ASSR on 5 December 1936, at the same time as the enactment of the 1936 Soviet Constitution. In its present form, the Mari El Republic was formed on 22 December 1990. On 21 May 1998, Mari El alongside Amur, Ivanovo, Kostroma, and Voronezh Oblast signed a power-sharing agreement with the federal government, granting it autonomy. [14] This agreement was abolished on 31 December 2001. [15]

The name of the republic is based on the ethnic self-designation of its indigenous population – Марий, "Mari" (from мари, "man, husband"), and эл, "country, land". [16]

Administrative divisions

Politics

Building of the Government of Mari El. Building of the government of republic of Mary El.jpg
Building of the Government of Mari El.

The head of government in the Mari El Republic is the Head (formerly President). As of 2017, the Head was Alexander Yevstifeyev, who was appointed in April 2017. [17]

The government of Mari El has been pursuing Russification in recent years, with the former head of the republic, Leonid Markelov, ordering many Mari language newspapers to close.[ citation needed ] Many ethnic Mari activists live in fear of violence. The Mari activist and chief editor Vladimir Kozlov was badly beaten after he criticized Markelov's government. Other Mari leaders have been subject to violence, legal persecution, and intimidation. [18]

The Mari people's native religion, based on the worship of the forces of nature, has encountered hostility as well. Vitaly Tanakov was charged with inciting religious, national, social, and linguistic hatred after publishing the book The Priest Speaks. [19]

The International Helsinki Federation for Human Rights (IHF) and the Moscow Helsinki Group (MHG), in an exhaustive 2006 report Russian Federation: The Human Rights Situation of the Mari Minority of the Republic of Mari El, found widespread evidence of political and cultural persecution of Mari people, and of "a broader trend of repression of dissidents in the republic". [20]

Demographics

Population: 696,459(2010 Census); [12] 727,979(2002 Census); [21] 749,386(1989 Soviet census). [22]

Vital statistics

Source: Russian Federal State Statistics Service Archived April 12, 2008, at the Wayback Machine
Average population (x 1000)Live birthsDeathsNatural changeCrude birth rate (per 1000)Crude death rate (per 1000)Natural change (per 1000)Fertility rates
197068610,5056,3644,14115.39.36.0
197569511,8167,1904,62617.010.36.7
198071013,1698,0915,07818.511.47.2
198572814,1988,5295,66919.511.77.8
199075511,9537,7754,17815.810.35.52,16
199175610,5787,7862,79214.010.33.71,97
19927589,2278,33089712.211.01.21,76
19937588,0199,622- 1,60310.612.7- 2.11,56
19947587,85110,788- 2,93710.414.2- 3.91,53
19957577,3379,999- 2,6629.713.2- 3.51,43
19967556,9529,495- 2,5439.212.6- 3.41,35
19977526,7829,625- 2,8439.012.8- 3.81,32
19987496,6579,623- 2,9668.912.8- 4.01,29
19997466,59710,674- 4,0778.814.3- 5.51,28
20007416,78411,040- 4,2569.114.9- 5.71,30
20017366,83211,434- 4,6029.315.5- 6.31,30
20027297,30012,105- 4,80510.016.6- 6.61,38
20037237,51511,861- 4,34610.416.4- 6.01,40
20047187,71512,098- 4,38310.716.9- 6.11,40
20057137,47512,256- 4,78110.517.2- 6.71,34
20067087,55011,286- 3,73610.715.9- 5.31,32
20077048,30610,745- 2,43911.815.3- 3.51,45
20087018,62010,699- 2,07912.315.3- 3.01,50
20096998,89610,435- 1,53912.714.9- 2.21,60
20106968,85710,572- 1,71512.715.2- 2.51,59
20116949,0669,816- 75013.014.1- 1.11,66
20126919,8349,44938514.213.70.51,83
201368910,0889,44464414.613.70.91,93
201468810,0819,41167014.713.71.01,98
20156879,9519,44850314.513.70.81,99
20166859,5679,02554213.913.20.71,98
20176838,1478,493-34611.912.4-0.51,75
Historical population
YearPop.±%
1939398,014    
1959647,680+62.7%
1970684,748+5.7%
1979702,744+2.6%
1989749,386+6.6%
2002727,979−2.9%
2010696,459−4.3%
2021677,097−2.8%
Source: Census data

Note: Total fertility rate source. [23]

Ethnic groups

The Hill Mari, who primarily live in the Gornomariyskiy, Kilemarsky & Yurino Districts of the republic. Hill mari folk ensemble.jpg
The Hill Mari, who primarily live in the Gornomariyskiy, Kilemarsky & Yurino Districts of the republic.

Though the Mari people have lived in the area for millennia, they did not have a designated territory before the Russian Revolution of 1917. According to the 2021 Census, only 58.2% of the Mari within Russia live in the Mari El Republic, while 20.1% live in the Republic of Bashkortostan (consisting of the Eastern Mari, who fled to Bashkorostan to escape religious persecution). During the last Soviet Census (1989), 4% of the Mari of the Soviet Union lived outside of Russia.

Since World War II, more ethnic Russians and Tatars have moved into the area. According to the 2021 Census, [24] Russians make up 52.5% of the republic's population (up from 47.4% in 2010), while the ethnic Mari make up 40.1% (down from 43.9%). Other groups include Tatars (4.8%), Chuvash (0.6%), and a host of smaller groups, each accounting for less than 0.5% of the total population.

Ethnic
group
1926 Census1939 Census1959 Census1970 Census1979 Census1989 Census2002 Census2010 Census [12] 2021 Census [24]
Number %Number %Number %Number %Number %Number %Number %Number %Number %
Mari 247,97951.4%273,33247.2%279,45043.1%299,17943.7%306,62743.5%324,34943.3%312,17842.9%290,86343.9%246,56040.1%
Russians 210,01643.6%266,95146.1%309,51447.8%320,82546.9%334,56147.5%355,97347.5%345,51347.5%313,94747.4%322,93252.5%
Tatars 20,2194.2%27,1494.7%38,8216.0%40,2795.9%40,9175.8%43,8505.9%43,3776.0%38,3575.8%29,3174.8%
Chuvash 2,1840.5%5,5040.9%9,0651.4%9,0321.3%8,0871.1%8,9931.2%7,4181.0%6,0250.9%3,6560.6%
Others1,7030.4%6,6741.2%10,8301.7%15,4332.3%14,0152.0%16,1672.2%19,9432.7%13,1382.0%12,4942.0%
162,138 people were registered from administrative databases, and could not declare an ethnicity. It is estimated that the proportion of ethnicities in this group is the same as that of the declared group. [25]

Religion

Religion in Mari El as of 2012 (Sreda Arena Atlas) [26] [27]
Russian Orthodoxy
47.8%
Other Orthodox
1.2%
Old Believers
1%
Other Christians
4.8%
Islam
6%
Rodnovery, Mari Native Religion and other native faiths
5.6%
Spiritual but not religious
24.8%
Atheism and irreligion
5.8%
Other and undeclared
3%
Orthodox church in Yoshkar-Ola Yoshkar-Ola P8122161 2200.jpg
Orthodox church in Yoshkar-Ola

The religions with the most adherents in the republic are Russian Orthodoxy, the Mari native religion, the Old Believers, and Islam. The traditional Mari religion (Chimari yula) is still practised today by many Mari people and is the main religion of the Mari of Bashkortostan; also practised is a syncretism with Christianity. The Czars took drastic measures to force Christianity on the Mari, going so far as blowing up a holy mountain, and the persecution of the religion went on under the Soviet Union.

During the 1990s the religion was officially recognized by the State and began to revive. The Mari gather at around 520 holy groves where they offer animal and vegetable sacrifices, there are about 20 festivals yearly. Although traditional religion is one of Mari El's three officially recognized religions (along with Orthodoxy and Islam) Mari religious practises have come under increasing pressure, according to human rights groups. [28]

Symbol used by adherents of the Mari Native Religion. Mari Native Faith symbol.png
Symbol used by adherents of the Mari Native Religion.

According to a 2012 survey, [26] 47.8% of the population of Mari El adheres to the Russian Orthodox Church, 6–15% adheres to the Mari native religion, 6% adheres to Islam, 4% are unaffiliated generic Christians, 1% are Old Believers and 1% are Orthodox Christian believers without church affiliation or members of other Orthodox churches. In addition, 25% of the population is "spiritual but not religious", 6% is atheist and 4.2% follows other religions or did not answer the question. [26]

Education

The most important facilities of higher education are Mari State Technical University and Mari State University, [29] both located in Yoshkar-Ola. There are also more than 900 primary and secondary schools located throughout the republic.

For the past few years, the Mari El Republic has been participating in the national project "Education" ("Oбразование"), which is designed to improve education throughout Russia by bringing new technology into the classroom, improving material conditions in schools, and providing financial awards to extraordinary students and teachers. Although the Mari language is officially a state language, Mari educators and administrators have been forced from their positions in recent years and Mari-language education has been defunded, according to the U.S. State Department, [30] the European Union, and others. [31]

Economy

The most developed industries are machine construction, metalworking, timber, woodworking, and food industries. Most of the industrial enterprises are located in the capital Yoshkar-Ola, as well as in the towns of Kozmodemyansk, Volzhsk, and Zvenigovo.[ citation needed ]

The largest companies in the region include Mariysky Oil Refinery (revenues of $502.2 million in 2017), Mari Pulp and Paper Mill ($137.12 million), Shelanger Chemical Plant "Siver" ($14.52 million), Marbiopharm ($14.02 million). [32]

Transportation

Traveling cheaply and quickly to various towns and villages within the Republic is made possible through a network of fifteen train stations, fifty-three bus stations, and numerous marshrutkas . The republic is connected to different regions throughout Russia by daily trains to and from Moscow and Kazan, flights on one commercial airline from Yoshkar-Ola Airport, located near Yoshkar-Ola, and a port on the Volga River in Kozmodemyansk. There are also four other minor river ports in the republic. Regional automobile code is 12.[ citation needed ]

Communication

Telephony, Internet service, and cable television are provided by VolgaTelecom.[ citation needed ]

Culture

Mari people in Yoshkar-Ola Peledysh pairem Ioshkar-OLa.jpg
Mari people in Yoshkar-Ola

There are many museums located throughout the territory of the republic. The largest ones include the National Museum, the Museum of History, and the Museum of Fine Arts in Yoshkar-Ola; the Museum of Arts and History, the Ethnographic Open-Air Museum, and the Merchant Life Museum in Kozmodemyansk; and the Sheremetyev Castle Museum-reserve in Yurino. There are also museums dedicated to the poet Nikolay Mukhin and the composer Ivan Klyuchnikov-Palantay in Yoshkar-Ola and the house-museum of writer Sergei Chavayn in Chavaynur.

The National Art Museum of the Mari El Republic Ploshchad' Obolenskogo-Nogotkova.jpg
The National Art Museum of the Mari El Republic

Five theaters are located in Yoshkar-Ola with performances in both the Russian and Mari languages.

Notable people

See also

Notes

  1. /mɑːˌrˈɛl/ mar-EE EL; Russian:Марий Эл, IPA: [mɐˌrʲijˈɛl] ; Meadow Mari: Марий Эл; Hill Mari: Мары Эл
  2. Russian: Республика Марий Эл; Meadow Mari: Марий Эл Республик; Hill Mari: Мары Эл Республик

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Yoshkar-Ola</span> Capital of Mari El, Russia

Yoshkar-Ola is the capital city of Mari El, Russia. Yoshkar-Ola means “red city” in Mari and was formerly known as Tsareovokokshaysk (Царевококшайск) before 1919, as Krasnokokshaysk (Краснококшайск) between 1919 and 1927 both after the Malaya Kokshaga River and Charla (Чарла), by the Mari people.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kozmodemyansk, Mari El Republic</span> Town in the Mari El Republic, Russia

Kozmodemyansk or Tsikmӓ is a town in the Mari El Republic, Russia, located at the confluence of the Vetluga and the Volga Rivers. Population: 21,257 (2010 Census); 22,771 (2002 Census); 24,746 (1989 Soviet census).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Volzhsk</span> Town in the Mari El Republic, Russia

Volzhsk is a town in the Mari El Republic, Russia, located near the Mari El–Tatarstan–Chuvashia border and a part of the Kazan metropolitan area. Population: 55,659 (2010 Census); 58,967 (2002 Census); 60,919 (1989 Soviet census).

Zvenigovo is a town and the administrative center of Zvenigovsky District of the Mari El Republic, Russia, located on the left bank of the Volga River, 90 kilometers (56 mi) south of Yoshkar-Ola, the capital of the republic. As of the 2010 Census, its population was 11,946.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gornomariysky District</span> District in Mari El Republic, Russia

Gornomariysky District is an administrative and municipal district (raion), one of the fourteen in the Mari El Republic, Russia. It is located in the west of the republic and is the only district on the right bank of the Volga River. It borders with Yurinsky District in the north, Kilemarsky District and the Chuvash Republic in the south, and with Nizhny Novgorod Oblast in the west. The area of the district is 1,730 square kilometers (670 sq mi). Its administrative center is the town of Kozmodemyansk. As of the 2010 Census, the total population of the district was 25,869.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kilemarsky District</span> District in Mari El Republic, Russia

Kilemarsky District is an administrative and municipal district (raion), one of the fourteen in the Mari El Republic, Russia. It is located in the west of the republic. The area of the district is 3,255 square kilometers (1,257 sq mi). Its administrative center is the urban locality of Kilemary. As of the 2010 Census, the total population of the district was 13,604, with the population of Kilemary accounting for 29.9% of that number.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kuzhenersky District</span> District in Mari El Republic, Russia

Kuzhenersky District is an administrative and municipal district (raion), one of the fourteen in the Mari El Republic, Russia. It is located in the east of the republic. The area of the district is 852 square kilometers (329 sq mi). Its administrative center is the urban locality of Kuzhener. As of the 2010 Census, the total population of the district was 14,556, with the population of Kuzhener accounting for 37.0% of that number.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Medvedevsky District</span> District in Mari El Republic, Russia

Medvedevsky District is an administrative and municipal district (raion), one of the fourteen in the Mari El Republic, Russia. It is located in the central and northern parts of the republic. The area of the district is 2,800 square kilometers (1,100 sq mi). Its administrative center is the urban locality of Medvedevo. As of the 2010 Census, the total population of the district was 67,703, with the population of Medvedevo accounting for 24.9% of that number.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Orshansky District</span> District in Mari El Republic, Russia

Orshansky District is an administrative and municipal district (raion), one of the fourteen in the Mari El Republic, Russia. It is located in the north of the republic. The area of the district is 897 square kilometers (346 sq mi). Its administrative center is the urban locality of Orshanka. As of the 2010 Census, the total population of the district was 15,139, with the population of Orshanka accounting for 43.5% of that number.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Paranginsky District</span> District in Mari El Republic, Russia

Paranginsky District is an administrative and municipal district (raion), one of the fourteen in the Mari El Republic, Russia. It is located in the east of the republic. The area of the district is 800 square kilometers (310 sq mi). Its administrative center is the urban locality of Paranga. As of the 2010 Census, the total population of the district was 16,307, with the population of Paranga accounting for 36.7% of that number.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sovetsky District, Mari El Republic</span> District in Mari El Republic, Russia

Sovetsky District is an administrative and municipal district (raion), one of the fourteen in the Mari El Republic, Russia. It is located in the center of the republic. The area of the district is 1,421 square kilometers (549 sq mi). Its administrative center is the urban locality of Sovetsky. As of the 2010 Census, the total population of the district was 31,081, with the population of the administrative center accounting for 34.3% of that number.

Medvedevo is an urban locality and the administrative center of Medvedevsky District of the Mari El Republic, Russia. As of the 2010 Census, its population was 16,841.

Kilemary is an urban locality and the administrative center of Kilemarsky District of the Mari El Republic, Russia. As of the 2010 Census, its population was 4,073.

Mari-Turek is an urban locality and the administrative center of Mari-Tureksky District of the Mari El Republic, Russia. As of the 2010 Census, its population was 5,164.

Krasnooktyabrsky is an urban locality in Medvedevsky District of the Mari El Republic, Russia. As of the 2010 Census, its population was 4,559.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Morki</span> Urban-type settlement in Mari El, Russia

Morki is an urban locality and the administrative center of Morkinsky District of the Mari El Republic, Russia. As of the 2010 Census, its population was 9,914.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Novy Toryal</span> Urban-type settlement in Mari El, Russia

Novy Toryal is an urban locality and the administrative center of Novotoryalsky District of the Mari El Republic, Russia. As of the 2010 Census, its population was 6,635.

Orshanka is an urban locality and the administrative center of Orshansky District of the Mari El Republic, Russia. As of the 2010 Census, its population was 6,589.

Sernur is an urban locality and the administrative center of Sernursky District of the Mari El Republic, Russia. As of the 2010 Census, its population was 8,686.

Privolzhsky is an urban locality in Volzhsky District of the Mari El Republic, Russia. As of the 2010 Census, its population was 4,159.

References

  1. Constitution of the Mari El Republic, Article 16
  2. Президент Российской Федерации. Указ №849 от 13 мая 2000 г. «О полномочном представителе Президента Российской Федерации в федеральном округе». Вступил в силу 13 мая 2000 г. Опубликован: "Собрание законодательства РФ", No. 20, ст. 2112, 15 мая 2000 г. (President of the Russian Federation. Decree #849 of May 13, 2000 On the Plenipotentiary Representative of the President of the Russian Federation in a Federal District. Effective as of May 13, 2000.).
  3. Госстандарт Российской Федерации. №ОК 024-95 27 декабря 1995 г. «Общероссийский классификатор экономических регионов. 2. Экономические районы», в ред. Изменения №5/2001 ОКЭР. (Gosstandart of the Russian Federation. #OK 024-95 December 27, 1995 Russian Classification of Economic Regions. 2. Economic Regions, as amended by the Amendment #5/2001 OKER. ).
  4. 1 2 Constitution, Article 6.2
  5. "Полиглот, человек из бизнеса и жесткий руководитель: что еще известно о новом главе Марий Эл Юрии Зайцеве". www.kazan.kp.ru (in Russian). September 14, 2022.
  6. "Сведения о наличии и распределении земель в Российской Федерации на 01.01.2019 (в разрезе субъектов Российской Федерации)". Federal Service for State Registration, Cadastre and Cartography. Archived from the original on February 9, 2022. Retrieved August 29, 2023.
  7. "Оценка численности постоянного населения по субъектам Российской Федерации". Federal State Statistics Service . Retrieved September 1, 2022.
  8. "26. Численность постоянного населения Российской Федерации по муниципальным образованиям на 1 января 2018 года". Federal State Statistics Service. Retrieved January 23, 2019.
  9. "Об исчислении времени". Официальный интернет-портал правовой информации (in Russian). June 3, 2011. Retrieved January 19, 2019.
  10. Official throughout the Russian Federation according to Article 68.1 of the Constitution of Russia.
  11. Constitution of the Mari El Republic, Article 15
  12. 1 2 3 Russian Federal State Statistics Service (2011). Всероссийская перепись населения 2010 года. Том 1 [2010 All-Russian Population Census, vol. 1]. Всероссийская перепись населения 2010 года [2010 All-Russia Population Census] (in Russian). Federal State Statistics Service.
  13. ="SportTourism">Спортивный туризм в Татарстане. По просторам Марий Эл. Справка о местности. (in Russian)
  14. "Newsline - May 22, 1998 Yeltsin Signs More Power-Sharing Agreements with Regions". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. June 20, 2008. Retrieved May 2, 2019.
  15. Chuman, Mizuki. "The Rise and Fall of Power-Sharing Treaties Between Center and Regions in Post-Soviet Russia" (PDF). Demokratizatsiya: 146.
  16. "Марийская республика - это... Что такое Марийская республика?". Словари и энциклопедии на Академике (in Russian). Retrieved December 19, 2021.
  17. "Alexander Yevstifeyev appointed Acting Head of Mari El". Kremlin.ru. April 6, 2017.
  18. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. "World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples - Russian Federation: Mari". Unhcr.org. Retrieved July 28, 2014.
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Further reading