Verreaux's sifaka

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Verreaux's sifaka
Temporal range: Pleistocene - recent [1]
Verreauxs Sifika Kirindy Madagascar.jpg
CITES Appendix I (CITES) [3]
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Suborder: Strepsirrhini
Family: Indriidae
Genus: Propithecus
Species:
P. verreauxi
Binomial name
Propithecus verreauxi
Propithecus verreauxi range map.svg
Distribution of P. verreauxi [2]
Synonyms
  • majoriRothschild, 1894
  • verreauxoidesLamberton, 1936

Verreaux's sifaka (Propithecus verreauxi), or the white sifaka, is a medium-sized primate in one of the lemur families, the Indriidae. Critically Endangered, it lives in Madagascar and can be found in a variety of habitats from rainforest to dry deciduous forests of western Madagascar and the spiny thickets of the south. Its fur is thick and silky and generally white with brown on the sides, top of the head, and on the arms. Like all sifakas, it has a long tail that it uses as a balance when leaping from tree to tree. However, its body is so highly adapted to an arboreal existence, on the ground its only means of locomotion is hopping. The species lives in small troops which forage for food.

Contents

Despite shrinking habitats, P. verreauxi still likely has the largest distribution of all sifakas. [5]

Anatomy

In adulthood, the full head and body length is between 42.5 and 45 cm (16.7 and 17.7 in). The tail of a fully grown Verreaux's sifaka grows to be between 56 and 60 cm (22 and 24 in) long. In weight, adult females reach 3.4 kg (7.5 lb) on average, and adult males 3.6 kg (7.9 lb). [6]

Verreaux's sifaka has a relatively low, flat braincase. The face is broader than that of most other indriids, but its snout is reduced. This species of sifaka is also distinguished by its unique dentition. Its dental formula is 2.1.2.32.0.2.3. The upper incisors are very small and are slightly angled inward towards the gap between I1 and I2. In the mandible, Verreaux's sifaka displays the strepsirhine characteristic: the toothcomb. Formed by the procumbent lower incisor and canine, the toothcomb projects past the front margin of the mouth. P. verreauxi also presents the high, shearing molar crests of a folivore, helping to shread the leaves, fruit and flowers that it eats.

Postcranially, Verreaux's sifaka has a low intermembral index that ranges from 63-66. It has a broader ribcage than most other prosimians, and has many lumbar vertebrae lending it considerable flexibility. The pelvis is high and narrow and the acetabulum is relatively shallow, also allowing for greater flexibility. Like other indriids, P. verreauxi has a short calcaneus, pointed nails, and slightly webbed hands and feet. [7]

Diet

Verreaux's sifaka is mostly folivorous Propithecus verreauxi 001.jpg
Verreaux's sifaka is mostly folivorous
Juvenile Verreaux Sifaka (Propithecus verreauxi) juvenile (9616339486).jpg
Juvenile

Verreaux's sifakas forage for food with their troop, primarily in the morning and late afternoon, so they can rest during the hottest part of the day. They are herbivores; leaves, fruit, bark and flowers are typical components of the diet. However, they are mostly folivorous (leaves represent the majority of the diet over the year, especially in the dry season) and they seem to choose food items based on quality (lower tannin content) rather than on availability. [8]

Behaviour

Verreaux's sifakas hop along the ground in a forward and sideways movement. Verreaux's Sifaka GIF.GIF
Verreaux's sifakas hop along the ground in a forward and sideways movement.

Verreaux's sifakas are diurnal and arboreal, and engage in sunbathing with outstretched arms and legs. They move through the trees by clinging and leaping between vertical supports. They are capable of making remarkable leaps through the trees - distances of 9–10 m are not uncommon. On the ground, they hop bipedally. [9] [10] They live in family groups, or troops, of 2-12, which may consist of one male and female, or many males and females together. Group and population sex ratio can be more or less skewed toward males. [11] [12] Many groups seem to be effectively harem groups with a single dominant male unrelated with resident female(s). [13] They have a home range of 2.8 to 5.0 ha, and although they are territorial, they defend food sources rather than territorial boundaries, as often boundaries overlap. Females are dominant over males, forming a matriarchal society.

Females use anogenital secretion mainly for territory demarcation whereas males seem to use specialized secretions (via anogenital and throat glands) more for sexual "advertisement" than for territorial purposes. [14] [15] Males show bimorphism, by showing either a clean or stained chest, derived from throat gland secretions and smeared on surfaces by rubbing the upper part of the chest. [16] Stain-chested males engage in the most active marking, and chest staining seems to be related to testosterone levels. [17]

Males and females were found to engage in a biological market, exchanging grooming for grooming during the non-mating period, and grooming ("offered" by males) for reproductive opportunities (sexual access "offered" by females) during the mating period. [18] A study found that females copulate more with stained-chested than with clean-chested males. On the other hand, clean-chested males, with a lower scent-releasing potential, usually offer more grooming to females. This “grooming for sex” tactic allows males with a clean chest to get to copulate with females, even if at low rate. [19]

It has also been discovered that sifaka dyads often engage in post-conflict reunions after aggressive episodes: reconciliation occurs more frequently when food is not involved and for low intensity aggressions. [20] In this species play behavior persists into adulthood where it is used, especially by stranger males during the mating period, as an ice-breaking mechanism to reduce xenophobia. [21]

A study of sifaka vocalizations found that roaring barks are associated with anti-raptor responses in which the Verreaux sifakas looked up and climbed down. [22] On the other hand, the meaning of "tchi-fak" vocalizations and growls varied by population, where a population subject to significant terrestrial predation associated these vocalizations with anti-terrestrial responses in which the sifakas looked down and climbed up, while another population associated the "tchi-fak" with a non-specific flight response, and the growl with mild disturbance. [22]

Reproduction

Around 45% of females breed each year when in oestrous between late January and early February. [23] Females give birth to one infant after a gestation period of 130 days, between June and August. For the first 6–8 weeks, the infant clings to the mother's stomach, but for the following 19 weeks, it clings to her back. [24] About 30% of infants are lost to predation by the Fossa (Cryptoprocta ferox) and a smaller number to raptors like the Madagascar harrier-hawk (Polyboroides radiatus). [23] Those that do survive reach sexual maturity between 3–5 years.

Males generally leave the group to join a neighboring group while adult females tend to stay with their natal group. [23] The testicles of those who become dominant increase when other males are around, increasing their chances of reproducing. [25]

Ecology and conservation status

The species is listed in CITES Appendix I, [3] and its IUCN conservation status was updated to Critically Endangered in 2020. [2] In the small spiny forest fragments of South Madagascar, sifaka abundance appears to be influenced by the proportion of large trees (diameter at breast height >=5 cm) and by the abundance of the plant species Allouadia procera, [26] a key species of the spiny forest habitat. [27] A long-term, large-scale demographic study of the species at Beza Mahafaly Special Reserve in southwest Madagascar found that the sifaka population there had a population growth rate of 0.98 (with confidence intervals spanning 1), suggesting that the population was not in danger of imminent extinction. However, both severe droughts and an increased annual variation in rainfall levels can depress the population growth rate. [28]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Indriidae</span> Family of lemurs

The Indriidae are a family of strepsirrhine primates. They are medium- to large-sized lemurs, with only four teeth in the toothcomb instead of the usual six. Indriids, like all lemurs, live exclusively on the island of Madagascar.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sifaka</span> Genus of lemur

A sifaka is a lemur of the genus Propithecus from the family Indriidae within the order Primates. The name of their family is an onomatopoeia of their characteristic "shi-fak" alarm call. Like all lemurs, they are found only on the island of Madagascar. All species of sifakas are threatened, ranging from endangered to critically endangered.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Indri</span> Genus of lemurs

The indri, also called the babakoto, is one of the largest living lemurs, with a head-body length of about 64–72 cm and a weight of between 6 and 9.5 kg. It has a black and white coat and maintains an upright posture when climbing or clinging. It is monogamous and lives in small family groups, moving through the canopy, and is herbivorous, feeding mainly on leaves but also seeds, fruits, and flowers. The groups are quite vocal, communicating with other groups by singing, roaring and other vocalisations. Besides humans, it is the only mammal found that can use rhythm.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lemur</span> Clade of primates endemic to the island of Madagascar

Lemurs are wet-nosed primates of the superfamily Lemuroidea, divided into 8 families and consisting of 15 genera and around 100 existing species. They are endemic to the island of Madagascar. Most existing lemurs are small, have a pointed snout, large eyes, and a long tail. They chiefly live in trees and are active at night.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ring-tailed lemur</span> A large lemur from Madagascar

The ring-tailed lemur is a medium- to larger-sized strepsirrhine (wet-nosed) primate and the most internationally recognized lemur species, owing to its long, black-and-white, ringed tail. It belongs to Lemuridae, one of five lemur families, and is the only member of the Lemur genus. Like all lemurs, it is endemic to the island of Madagascar, where it is endangered. Known locally in Malagasy as maky or hira, it ranges from gallery forests to spiny scrub in the southern regions of the island. It is omnivorous, as well as the most adapted to living terrestrially of the extant lemurs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gray mouse lemur</span> Small primate from Madagascar

The gray mouse lemur, grey mouse lemur or lesser mouse lemur is a small lemur, a type of strepsirrhine primate, found only on the island of Madagascar. Weighing 58 to 67 grams, it is the largest of the mouse lemurs, a group that includes the smallest primates in the world. The species is named for its mouse-like size and coloration and is known locally as tsidy, koitsiky, titilivaha, pondiky, and vakiandry. The gray mouse lemur and all other mouse lemurs are considered cryptic species, as they are nearly indistinguishable from each other by appearance. For this reason, the gray mouse lemur was considered the only mouse lemur species for decades until more recent studies began to distinguish between the species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Goodman's mouse lemur</span> Species of mammal

Goodman's mouse lemur is a species of mouse lemur from the region near Andasibe in eastern Madagascar. The species is named in honor of primatologist Steven M. Goodman. "Lehilahytsara" is a combination of the Malagasy words which mean "good" and "man". The finding was presented August 10, 2005, along with the discovery of the northern giant mouse lemur as a separate species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Greater bamboo lemur</span> Species of lemur

The greater bamboo lemur, also known as the broad-nosed bamboo lemur and the broad-nosed gentle lemur, is a species of lemur endemic to the island of Madagascar.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Diademed sifaka</span> Species of lemur

The diademed sifaka, or diademed simpona, is an endangered species of sifaka, one of the lemurs endemic to certain rainforests in eastern Madagascar. Along with the indri, this species is one of the two largest living lemurs, with an average weight of 6.5 kg and a total adult length of approximately 105 centimetres (41 inches), half of which is its tail. Russell Mittermeier, one of the contemporary authorities on lemurs, describes the diademed sifaka as "one of the most colorful and attractive of all the lemurs", having a long and silky coat. P. diadema is also known by the Malagasy names simpona, simpony and ankomba joby. The term "diademed sifaka" is also used as a group species designation formerly encompassing four distinct subspecies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Coquerel's sifaka</span> Diurnal, medium-sized lemur

Coquerel's sifaka is a diurnal, medium-sized lemur of the sifaka genus Propithecus. It is native to northwest Madagascar. Coquerel's sifaka was once considered a subspecies of Verreaux's sifaka but was eventually granted full species status. It is listed as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List due to habitat loss and hunting.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Golden-crowned sifaka</span> A medium-sized lemur with mostly white fur, prominent furry ears, and a golden-orange crown

The golden-crowned sifaka or Tattersall's sifaka is a medium-sized lemur characterized by mostly white fur, prominent furry ears, and a golden-orange crown. It is one of the smallest sifakas, weighing around 3.5 kg (7.7 lb) and measuring approximately 90 cm (35 in) from head to tail. Like all sifakas, it is a vertical clinger and leaper, and its diet includes mostly seeds and leaves. The golden-crowned sifaka is named after its discoverer, Ian Tattersall, who first spotted the species in 1974. However, it was not formally described until 1988, after a research team led by Elwyn L. Simons observed and captured some specimens for captive breeding. The golden-crowned sifaka most closely resembles the western forest sifakas of the P. verreauxi group, yet its karyotype suggests a closer relationship with the P. diadema group of eastern forest sifakas. Despite the similarities with both groups, more recent studies of its karyotype support its classification as a distinct species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Reddish-gray mouse lemur</span> Species of mammal

The reddish-gray mouse lemur also known as the gray-brown mouse lemur or rufous-gray mouse lemur, is a small, solitary-but-social, nocturnal and omnivorous primate from the Western Madagascar in the region around Beza Mahafaly Reserve, north to Lamboharana. Like the other lemur species, the reddish-grey mouse lemur is endemic to Madagascar. They generally live in the drier regions of the island. It is categorized as least concerned in the IUCN Red List.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Madame Berthe's mouse lemur</span> Species of mammal

Madame Berthe's mouse lemur or Berthe's mouse lemur is the smallest of the mouse lemurs and the smallest primate in the world; the average body length is 9.2 cm (3.6 in) and seasonal weight is around 30 g (1.1 oz). Microcebus berthae is one of many species of Malagasy lemurs that came about through extensive speciation, caused by unknown environmental mechanisms and conditions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mouse lemur</span> Genus of mammals

The mouse lemurs are nocturnal lemurs of the genus Microcebus. Like all lemurs, mouse lemurs are native to Madagascar.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Collared brown lemur</span> Species of lemur

The collared brown lemur, also known as the red-collared brown lemur or red-collared lemur, is a medium-sized strepsirrhine primate and one of twelve species of brown lemur in the family Lemuridae. It is only found in south-eastern Madagascar. Like most species of lemur, it is arboreal, moving quadrupedally and occasionally leaping from tree to tree. Like other brown lemurs, this species is cathemeral, lives in social groups, primarily eats fruit, exhibits sexual dichromatism, and does not demonstrate female dominance. The species is listed as Endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and is threatened primarily by habitat loss.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Silky sifaka</span> A large lemur from Madagascar

The silky sifaka is a large lemur characterized by long, silky, white fur. It has a very restricted range in northeastern Madagascar, where it is known locally as the simpona. It is one of the rarest mammals on Earth. The silky sifaka is one of nine sifaka species, and one of four former subspecies of diademed sifaka (P. diadema). Studies in 2004 and 2007 compared external proportions, genetics, and craniodental anatomy supporting full species status, which has generally been accepted.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Perrier's sifaka</span> Species of lemur

Perrier's sifaka is a lemur endemic to Madagascar. It was formerly considered to be a subspecies of diademed sifaka It has a very small range in northeastern Madagascar where its habitat is dry deciduous or semihumid forest. Part of its range is in protected areas. It is an almost entirely black sifaka and measures about 90 cm (35 in), half of which is a bushy tail. Females are slightly larger than males.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Crowned sifaka</span> Species of mammal

The crowned sifaka is a sifaka endemic to western Madagascar, a part of the world where nature and its biological diversity faces enormous and devastating consequences resulting from anthropogenic activities. It is a species of lemur belonging to the Indriidae family, it is of comparable size to the Golden-crowned sifaka and up to a meter in length, of which 47-57 centimeters are tail. The species is an arboreal vertical climber and leaper whose diet consists of leaves, fruits and flowers. It is threatened by habitat destruction caused by human activities and is currently classified as critically endangered by the IUCN. Conservation planning needs to take local people needs and views into account in order to be successful over the long term.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Southern woolly lemur</span> Species of lemur

The southern woolly lemur, or southern avahi, has been recently recognized as a separate species of woolly lemur in 2006 by Zaramody et al. It is a nocturnal and pair-living species. Groups can range from 2 to 5 individuals. A study in Sainte Luce forest revealed home range varied from 2.2 to 3.5 ha and that males can have larger home range and cover longer daily distances than females, in agreement with the territory defence and mate guarding hypotheses.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Milne-Edwards's sifaka</span> Species of lemur

Milne-Edwards's sifaka, or Milne-Edwards's simpona, is a large arboreal, diurnal lemur endemic to the eastern coastal rainforest of Madagascar. Milne-Edwards's sifaka is characterized by a black body with a light-colored "saddle" on the lower part of its back. It is closely related to the diademed sifaka, and was until recently considered a subspecies of it. Like all sifakas, it is a primate in the family Indriidae.

References

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  2. 1 2 3 Louis, E.E.; Sefczek, T.M.; Bailey, C.A.; Raharivololona, B.; Lewis, R.; Rakotomalala, E.J. (2020). "Propithecus verreauxi". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2020: e.T18354A115572044. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T18354A115572044.en . Retrieved 19 November 2021.
  3. 1 2 "Checklist of CITES Species". CITES. UNEP-WCMC. Retrieved 18 March 2015.
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  5. ↑ Randrianjaka1, Sylvain (April 2, 2024). "Population Estimate of Propithecus verreauxi Grandidier in the Mahafaly Plateau Southwestern Madagascar" (PDF). Primate Conservation. 38.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
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  10. ↑ Lawler R.R. (2006). "Sifaka positional behavior: Ontogenetic and quantitative genetic approaches". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 131 (2): 261–271. doi:10.1002/ajpa.20430. PMID   16596593.
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  13. ↑ Kappeler, P.M.; Schäffler, L. (2007). "The lemur syndrome unresolved: extreme male reproductive skew in sifakas (Propithecus verreauxi), a sexually monomorphic primate with female dominance". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 62 (6): 1007–1015. doi: 10.1007/s00265-007-0528-6 .
  14. ↑ Lewis, R.J. (2005). "Sex differences in scent-marking in sifaka: Mating conflict or male services?". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 128 (2): 389–398. doi:10.1002/ajpa.20206. PMID   15795894.
  15. ↑ Lewis R.J. (2006). "Scent marking in Sifaka : No one function explains it all". American Journal of Primatology. 68 (6): 622–636. doi:10.1002/ajp.20256. PMID   16715510. S2CID   11806179.
  16. ↑ Lewis R.J. & van Schaik C.P. (2007). "Bimorphism in Male Verreaux's Sifaka in the Kirindy Forest of Madagascar". International Journal of Primatology. 28: 159–182. doi:10.1007/s10764-006-9107-3. S2CID   22773229.
  17. ↑ Lewis R.J. (2009). "Chest Staining Variation as a Signal of Testosterone Levels in Male Verreaux's Sifaka". Physiology & Behavior. 96 (4–5): 586–592. doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2008.12.020. PMID   19162056. S2CID   11419343.
  18. ↑ Norscia, I.; Antonacci, D.; Palagi, E. (2009). Brosnan, Sarah Frances (ed.). "Mating First, Mating More: Biological Market Fluctuation in a Wild Prosimian". PLOS ONE. 4 (3): e4679. Bibcode:2009PLoSO...4.4679N. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0004679 . PMC   2650411 . PMID   19262737.
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  21. ↑ Antonacci, D.; Norscia, I.; Palagi, E. (2010). Iwaniuk, Andrew (ed.). "Stranger to Familiar: Wild Strepsirhines Manage Xenophobia by Playing". PLOS ONE. 5 (10): e13218. Bibcode:2010PLoSO...513218A. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0013218 . PMC   2951354 . PMID   20949052.
  22. 1 2 Fichtel, Claudia; Kappeler, Peter M. (2011). "Variation in the Meaning of Alarm Calls in Verreaux's and Coquerel's Sifakas (Propithecus verreauxi, P. coquereli)". International Journal of Primatology. 32 (2): 346–361. doi:10.1007/s10764-010-9472-9. PMC   3047677 . PMID   21475394.
  23. 1 2 3 Garbutt, Nick (1999). Mammals of Madagascar. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN   0-300-07751-3. OCLC   41158604.
  24. ↑ Richard A.F. (1976). "Preliminary observations on the birth and development of Propithecus verreauxi to the age of six months". Primates. 17 (3): 357–366. doi:10.1007/bf02382791. S2CID   28469514.
  25. ↑ Berdugo, Sophie (June 7, 2024). "Male lemurs grow bigger testicles when there are other males around". New Scientist. Retrieved November 10, 2024.
  26. ↑ Norscia, I.; Palagi, E. (2011). "Fragment quality and distribution of the arboreal primate Propithecus verreauxi in the spiny forest of south Madagascar". Journal of Tropical Ecology. 27: 103–106. doi:10.1017/S0266467410000519. S2CID   86626320.
  27. ↑ Elmqvist, T.; Pyykonen, M.; Tengo, N.; Rakotondrasoa, F.; Rabakonandrianina, E.; Radimilahy, C. (2007). Somers, Michael (ed.). "Patterns of Loss and Regeneration of Tropical Dry Forest in Madagascar: The Social Institutional Context". PLOS ONE. 2 (5): e403. Bibcode:2007PLoSO...2..402E. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0000402 . PMC   1853233 . PMID   17476324.
  28. ↑ Lawler R.R.; Caswell H.; Richard A.F.; Ratsirarson J.; Dewar R.E.; Schwartz M. (2009). "Demography of Verreaux's sifaka in a stochastic rainfall environment". Oecologia. 161 (3): 491–504. Bibcode:2009Oecol.161..491L. doi:10.1007/S00442-009-1382-1. PMID   19636591. S2CID   22677169.
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