Wigalois is a courtly romance of the Arthurian cycle set down in Middle High German verse by Wirnt von Grafenberg. The title character Wigalois becomes a knight of the Round Table, but he remains not knowing he is the son of Sir Gawain (here Gawein[a]) whom he meets, having spent an upbringing entirely in the care of his mother's royal family, in the otherworldly kingdom, which became undiscoverable to Gawain once he left. The work, written between 1204 and 1220, enjoyed enormous popularity in the Middle Ages, and was printed in Volksbuch (chapbook) format into the early modern period.
The young hero accepts his first adventure and main quest when a female messenger arrives in court (with a dwarf), seeking help for her mistress. The damsel is angered that such an untested novice had been recruited, until the young hero proves his prowess through five side-quest adventures:[4] dispatching a tally of four knights and two giants in the process.[5] The group reaches the castle of Roimunt, which is where the messenger's master, the widowed Queen abides, her husband killed and the rest of the kingdom of Korntin overrun by the heathen lord Roaz of Glois,[b] in league with the devil. Wigalois's quest is now clarified as one of eradicating Roaz and restoring the kingdom, upon which the champion will be recognized as the king, taking princess Larie in marriage (the couple are already in love with each other the first they meet). Wigalois, endowed with a scripted paper amulet for his sword and strength-restoring bread,[c] enters Korntin castle guided by a mysterious beast—a crowned deer-leopard hybrid—[4] who turns out to be the slain King Lar, who reveals to Wigalois his parentage, supplying him with more magic items (protective flower and angel's spear[c]) to first defeat a dragon. Wigalois vanquishes the dragon but is gravely wounded, and a fisherman[d] and his wife rob his armor. He continues on and faces more adversaries, a monstrous forest woman and a powerful heathen dwarf Karrioz.[e] He enters Glois castle after his prayer causes the bladed water-wheel to stop rotating at the gate, and he kills a centaur, two guards, and finally Roaz himself. Wigalois marries Larie in the presence of the Arthurian knights and many guests. There is a further adventure that Wigalois takes up jointly with his father Gawain, avenging the murder of King Amire of Libia (who had been a wedding guest,[6]); the king was murdered by Lion of Namur, who was enamored of the queen; the murder is avenged by Gawein (though Wigalois also took part, since the widowed queen was also second cousin to his bride Larie). Father, son and bride visit Arthur's court, though news arrives during the trip that Wigalois's mother Florie[f] has died. After spending their years back in Korntin, the Wigalois couple have a son, whose fame was also renowned according to the author.[5][7][c]
Etymology
The name Wigalois is explained in the work as meaning Guy of Wales,[12] and possibly adapted from Old French Gui li Galois, though it may also be a (possibly deliberate) corruption of the name Guinglain[s] for Gawain's son in Old French literature.[13]
Dates and composition
Wigalois written c. 1204–1220[15] in 11,708 lines of rhymed couplets.[6] There have survived 13 complete manuscripts and 28 fragments, the earliest of which date to c.1220–1230.[14]
A strophic revision under the title Wigelis by Dietrich von Hopfgarten[de] dating to 1455 only survived in fragments.[17] Later, a prose redaction Wigoleis vom Rade appeared (composed 1472–1483, first printed 1493 in Volksbuch/chapbook format by Johann Schönsperger[de] in Augsburg).[17][18][19] This has been adapted into Danish as Viegoleis med Guld Hiulet (1656) and then secondhand into Icelandic as Gabons saga ok Vigoles (from the Danish, 1656–1683, another version in 18th century ms.)[19] Just a few years after the 1493 prose appeared, another strophic retelling Floreis und Wigoleis was composed by Ulrich Füetrer and added to his Buch der Abenteuer.[18]
A Yiddish rendition Viduvilt/Widuwilt (also called Artushof) was also composed in the 16th century, extant in three manuscripts.[20][14][21] This was later translated sloppily into High German, and became the basis of a satirical prose Vom König Artus und von dem bildschönen Ritter Wieduwilt. Ein Ammenmärchen (pub. Leipzig, 1786).[22]
First page of ms. B (Leiden): prologue and illustration of the Round Table
Prologue
Some―but not all―versions of Wigalois contain a prologue (vv. 1-144[44]) in which the author asks his readers for leniency with the work, and by their goodwill tor recognize him more as a novice rather than a master far experienced in his craft.[45] The first 13 lines of the 144 verses of prologue are:
Wer hât mich guoter ûf getân? sî ez iemen der mich kan beidiu lesen und verstên, der sol genâde an mir begên, ob iht wandels an mir sî, daz er mich doch lâze vrî valscher rede: daz êret in. ich weiz wol daz ich niene bin geliutert und gerihtet noch sô wol getihtet michn velsche lîhte ein valscher man, wan sich niemen vor in kan behüeten wol, swie rehte er tuot.
—Wigalois, Prologue, vv. 1–13
Translation:
What good man has opened me?[46] If it is someone who can read and understand me, let him treat me kindly—even if something of mine is at fault—and spare me slander: this will do him honor. I know very well I am not at all polished or upstanding, or well-spoken in writing so a caluminator can malign me easily; for no one can truly protect from them, no matter how skillfully he writes.
There follows a "Prehistory" portion (vv. 145–1219)[47][49][50] where the titular hero (Wigalois, Gwigalois, etc) is not yet born, but the circumstances of his conception is elaborated. (Wigalois was fathered by Gawein[a] on Florie,[f] the royal niece, while staying in King Joram's[m] realm:
A mysterious knight (actually King Joram, who is to become the title hero's grandfather) had shown up in Arthur's Court at Karidol/Caridoel[n] offering Queen Ginovere (Guinevere)[o] a magic belt,[p] but being refused, he challenges all the knights to combat, offering the belt as prize. Joram defeats everyone, including Gawain.[48] However, Joram concedes he was only able to defeat Gawain by using the magic stone-encrusted belt, which he refrained from using against the other opponents, thus Gawain is deemed champion despite defeat.[54] Gawain is taken back as prisoner to the realm of King Joram, who now discloses his identity and offers his niece Florie's hand in marriage. After several months, Gawain yearns to see his companions and sneaks off to Caridoel, but the trip back takes six months, despite it only being a 12 day's journey to the realm with Joram guiding. Gawain tries to find his way back to his pregnant wife, but eventually gives up.[48] The unborn child of course, is Wigalois.
Otherworld
Due to its unreachability by outsiders, Wigalois's birthplace is characterized as Otherwordly realm[55] or even "fairyland"[56] by some, but it has been emphasized tha Florie is not a fay,[57][58] but a princess of Syria.[59]
Fortuna and the Wheel
When Joram had appeared incognito at Arthur's court, he identified himself as ambassador of Diu sælde/Frau Saelde (Fortuna, Lady Luck)[60] The kingdom is under the protection of Fortuna,[61] and its fortress displays an artwork replica of the Wheel of Fortune (Middle High German: gelückes rat).[63] Wigalois is "The Knight of the Wheel of Fortune"[64](Ritter mit dem Rade,[65][68]). Later in his first adventure, Wigalois is equipped with the shield-crest depicting the Wheel[69] ("coal-black shield that was embossed in the middle with a golden wheel, the device by which he wished to be known"[70]). Cf. images at top for the miniature paintings from mss. k and B.
Magic belt
Joram's magic belt ("Fortuna's belt") was passed on to Gawein,[61][67] Gawein forgets the belt when he leaves his wife's kingdom, and when Wigalois comes of age and decides to leave, his mother gives him the same belt as memento of his father.[71][72]
Later commentators giving briefer summaries have divided the work into four narrative blocks or phases (though their demarcations are somewhat different), e.g., translator J. W. Thomas (1977), Ingeborg Henderson (1986), Hans-Jochen Schiewer[de] (1993), and James H. Brown (2015).[73][74]
The author takes pains to describe the heraldiccoat of arms of various characters, and these are illustrated by the miniature painters as well.[75][76][77]
Boyhood to knighthood
The first narrative phase tells of the protagonist's parental history (§Prehistory above, vv. 145–1219), his fatherless upbringing (vv. 1220–1272), taking his departure from home at age 20 in search of his father (Vatersuche[de])[78][79][80] taking the heirloom magic belt (vv. 1273–1410),[81] his arrival and training as squire at Arthur's court and sitting on the stone of virtue[q] proving his merit (vv. 1411–1563), receiving the accolade of knighthood in a solemn ceremony (vv. 1622–1716), his accepting the first adventure as a Knight of the Round, and leaving the court to accomplish it (vv. 1717–1883).[84]
When the maiden (Nereja[r]) arrives as messenger to Arthur's court, seeking help (vv. 1717–1769) for her mistress (Queen Amena,[s] mother of Princess Larie[t]).[4] Wigalois volunteers to take up the adventure and King Arthur reluctantly consents (vv. 1770–1811). The choice of the inexperienced knight enrages Nereja, who bolts off (vv. 1770–1811). Wigalois is suited up in full panoply, including the golden wheel-blazoned shield and likewise crested helm, pieces he chose because they reminded him of his homeland. He now leaves to pursue Nereja (vv. 1812–1883).[85][86][73]
Side-quest filled journey
The second phase describes a series of ordeals that the hero must endure while accompanying Nereja to the castle of Roimunt where the Queen (and Princess) await.[11][88] Wigalois catches up, and with the counsel of Nereja's dwarf, they travel together (vv. 1884–1927).[89] They group asks for lodging at a castle, but the lord of the castle[u] only grants shelter to a knight who defeats him in combat, with the loss of the knight's armor at stake. Wigalois unintentionally kills the castellan in combat and they flee (vv. 1928–2013).[91] Next, he rescues a lady from Arthur's court abducted by two giants, killing one then defeating the other swinging a tree-bough as weapon,[v] compelling him to escort her back (vv. 2014–2183). The hero finds a puppy and gives it to Nereja; the owner demands it back, and when refused, returns fully armed for a fight (coat of arms: swan[w]), but defeated and killed by Wigalois (vv. 2184–2348).
Wigalois then aids a maiden riding alone[x] (Elamie, Queen of Tyre[y]), who was robbed of her beauty prizes (a horse, a dwarf, a talking parrot[z]) by the "Red Knight", aka Count Hojir of Mannesvelt[aa] (wears red armor, with skull as coat of arms[ab]), whom Wigalois vanquishes in a joust to regain the prizes. But Elamie rides away, miffed after Wigalois refuses her invitation to her kingdom; the abandoned prizes are given to Nereja, helping to placate the irksome messenger (vv. 2349–3285). Finally, the hero meets King Schaffilun[ac] who is also vying for the great main quest of Korntin,[ad][ae] and in a fight contesting the quest defeats and kills his rival[af] (vv. 2349–3606).[ag]
Korntin onto Glois
In the third and longest narrative phase the hero is now tasked with freeing the kingdom of Korntin from the clutches of the pagan usurper Roaz of Glois and reclaiming it for Larie as its rightful queen, with the successful champion earning the privilege to become her king consort as reward. Christendom triumphing over Heathendom is a strong theme in the work.[5]From the outset, the depicted scene is strongly reminiscent of the historical-theological argumentation in contemporary Crusade sermons.[citation needed] Wigalois enters Korntin and Korntin Castle, then beyond its border to Glois Castle: a place that is somewhat like bedeviled hell[93][94] (and his visit there like stepping into the afterlife,[93] or Christ's Harrowing of Hell[95][96]). First he frees the kingdom from a cruel dragon named Pfetan,[ah] and finally fights Roaz, whom he defeats. Thus, at the end of the narrative phase, Korntin is once again a free land.[14]
To continue with the details, it is at this point (after the Scheffelin side-quest) that Naraje finally reveals the circumstance and the task of the adventure. Her mistress (here referring to the young princess Larie[ai]) of Korntin while still a juvenile had been forced to flee to the holdout at the impregnable castle (at Roimunt), after the rest of the country was overrun by the treacherous heathen Roaz of Glois,where Glois is a county beyond Korntin kingdom.[b][102] Roaz is in league with the devil who furnishes assistance. Roaz pretended to strike up friendship with the old king (Lar[aj]), but one day stormed in with 400 troops and slew the king as well as many citizens (vv. 3607–3750). The princess has grown up beautifully, and her hand in marriage is promised to whoever liberates Korntin from the heathen (vv. 3751–3839). A mysterious crowned creature (antlered deer's head[104][105][106] and from the head down, like leopard[ak]) appears each day to guide the group via a secret route to the castle (vv. 3840–3884). The Steward of Roimunt[al] rides out of the castle, and briefly fights with the stranger Wigalois,[am] until the steward notices Nereja in company, and they are reconciled. Wigalois is introduced to the Queen and her retinue in the castle of Roimunt (vv. 3885-4094). When Wigalois and the Princess Larie meet, they immediately fall in love with each other (vv. 4095–4269).[4][an] Wigalois witnesses the ongoing mysterious nightly vision of the far-off Korntin castle burning ablaze, with wailing noises, restored back to normal in the morning. Wigalois is ready to head there (vv. 4270–4342). Mass is held for him,[ao] and the priest ties to his sword a script (piece of paper with writing)[112][ap] to ward against all enchantment. Larie gives him a miraculous loaf of bread that gives him strength[94][aq](vv. 4343–4479).
Wigalois is guided by the deer-beast to Korntin castle gate,[ar] and drawbridge lowered by guard who feared the beast's hot breath (vv. 4480–4538). Wigalois then sees knights apparently engaging in tourney between two broad streets, but there is something eerily unnatural about them. They all bear the same coat of arms: red fire in cinnabar on a black field.[as] He jumps in on the contests and starts jousting with his spear for the sake of his beloved,[113][at] but the spear is set aflame, burning both shaft and the iron point, and he realizes this place was not for him, but for the knights to do penance imposed on them by God (vv. 4539-4589). The beast leads him to the meadow in front of the castle and transforms into the shape of human wearing a crown, as he is the ghost of the slain King Lar. The king is surrounded by some sacred barrier that is unapproachable (vv. 4590-4649). The king reveals many things: that Wigalois will first be fighting a dragon (named Pfetan[ah]), and will need to harvest a flower from the blooming tree in the meadow as protection against its foul breath.[au] Wigalois is also awarded the spear or glaive (glävie) which was brought by an angel and stuck on the wall, with which to slay the dragon. The king further reveals Wigalois's heretofore unbeknownst identity, that he is the son of Gawein, thus a most qualified knight. King Lar has been stuck in Purgatory except for being granted permission to come to the haven of the meadow (once) each day, but explains that after 10 years of labor, he is about to be purified for good. An army of mounted knights arrive and enter the castle on foot, the king turns back into the beast and disappears. The burning castle burns for one last time (vv. 4650-4862).
Wigalois meets lady Beleare[av] in despair for her husband Count Moral von Joraphas [aw] being dragged away by the dragon, alongside three knights. Wigalois prepares by eating a bite of the bread of fortification and taking out the anti-magic flower from the purse.[ax] The dragon is described.[ay][az] Wigalois pierces the dragon's heart with the spear.[ba] The dragon releases its prey, the four men,[bb] and, before dying, rushes at Wigalois, dashing his shield and armor, and "threw him like a ball down a gully[123][bc] to the shore of the broad lake" where he lies powerless (vv. 4862-5140).[bd] A destitute fisherman[d] and his wife arrive by boat, guided by grace of God (5247-5320), and given opportunity to strip the unconscious Wigalois, to sell off the armor, clothes, and belt in order to feed their children.[128][be] The woman even tries to drown Wigalois when he stirs, but the fisherman objects[129] (vv. 5247-5412). The crime is being witnessed by six female servants of the Count.[bf] The fisherman's wife develops affection (minne) for Wigalois after seeing his beautiful body, and brings water in her cupped hands to splash him,[bg] but he only regains his strength slightly, and not his consciousness[bh] (vv. 5413–5480).
One of the court ladies after spying the looters in their hut, reports back to Beleare, who is lamentful that Wigalois may have succumbed for her cause, and they depart to retrieve him (vv. 5481–5752). Beleare intends to grant thirty hides of land and a choice of home for the hero[130][bi] (vv. 5753–5781). Beleare goes to where Wigalois lies. Wigalois awakens naked and confused, believing his former life to have been a dream, and presumes he is now a poor wretch farming the woods.[134] The sight of his bag containing bread and blossom gives him flashbacks of Larie, confusing him further into despair (5782–5857). Beleare hears his lamentations; he flees in shame. Beleare tracks him down to a cave, lending her fur coat to cover himself.[135] The fisherman leads them back to her castle, where Wigalois recovers (5858–5989).
He overcomes the loss of his hereditary belt, and is supplied by Beleare with a fresh sword, horse, and armor.[bj] Although his hauberk (body armor) was broken beyond repair, he gets equipped with his own wheel-crested helmet, shield, punctured surcoat, and his own sword.[bk] and sets out (5990-6250).
Wigalois then encounters a monstrous hairy and swarthy woman in the forest (presumably a wild woman[140]) named Ruel,[bl] and she was looking to exact vengeance[bm] (vv. 6251–6364). Because the woman was unarmed, he did not draw his sword, and she grabs him away to her cave,[bn] binding his hands; she was about to use Wigalois's own girded sword to strike him dead,[bo] when his horse's neighing tricks her into thinking a dragon was nearby, and she flees. God's intervention was at work; he prays to God and promises readiness to strike first blow next time (6365-6528).[143]
Wigalois now approaches Roaz's Glois castle across the river, bridged by a causeway with sixty spears propped up along its path. The bridge is guarded by the pagan dwarf Karrioz,[e][bp][3] of immense strength despite his stature, wearing a lion skin. Wiglois with sword defeats Karrioz who seizes a club, delivering a mortal wound (vv. 6529–6713). The dwarf fled to his death into the black, smoky, deadly fog[147] that surrounded the castle by day, and covered intruders with pitch-like substance. But this fog lifted from around the castle when night came, receding to the swamps, and bridge over the swamp appeared, across which was a marble gate protected by a bronze (water-)wheel fitted with swords and maces.[147] The river's flow starts to spin it, as the fog is encroaching from behind. Wigalois leaves his fate to God's aid while he sleeps, and the Virgin Mary drives away the fog with wind and congeals it. The wheel stops, and Wigalois enters, after which the wheel starts again (vv. 6714–6926). Wigalois now faces a half-animal, half-man (presumably a centaur, though dog-headed[148]) called Marrien,[bq] that casts magical fire, burning horse and equipment, even armor and sword. He wounds the creature, extinguishes fire with blood (vv. 6927-7027). A voice in Glois warns Roaz he is on the verge of losing his kingdom and his life (vv. 6927-7054). Description of Glois Castle. Wigalois fights two old guards/gatekeepers, killing one,[br][bs] and subjugating the other, Count Adan of Alarie [bt] (vv. 7055–7258).
Knock at the gate opens it; flash of lightning and thunder, then darkness. Twelve maidens with candles lead Wigalois into palace. Roaz in full armor comes through open door. A magic cloud hovers around Roaz, where the devil is hiding. Roaz thinks the devil is there to aid him as always, but Wigalois does not see this cloud because he is protected by the script on the sword (and he also made the sign of the cross) so the devil does not dare approach the knight, astonishing Roaz. Still, Roaz is overconfident he can defeat the intruder (vv. 7259–7351).[150] Roaz's coat of arms[bu][bv] and equipment in detail (vv. 7352–7394).[151] His wife Japhite[bw] attends to spectate battle (vv. 7395–7478). Roaz forbids his subjects from interfering, and in a drawn out battle, killed by Wigalois. His wife Japhite dies in despair (vv. 7673–7765). Wigalois faints. Roaz praised for bravery (7766–7835).[152] Count Adan[bx] attends to Wigalois and defends him from Roaz's women courtiers who wish to kill him (7836-7989). Wigalois regains consciousness. Roaz tolerated only women courtiers, for he wanted no men near his wife. The poet here mentions the historical death of the Duke of Meran where the women were wailing likewise.[153] (vv. 7990-8093). Longing for Larie helps Wigalois regain his wits (vv. 8094-8136). Roaz is kidnapped by a troop of devils without anyone noticing.[154] Adan converts to Christianity. Japhite is buried in a precious coffin made by Roaz (vv. 8137-8325). The women courtiers accept young Wiglois as their new lord, with Adan acting as their French-Arabic interpreter. Wiglois entrusts the treasures to Adan (8326-8379).[155] Wigalois's sorrow is eased somewhat when he rides a Castilian[by] horse to tournament.[bz] Adan brings six fiddlers (8380-8482).[156] Wigalois designates Adan with stewardship of Glois, and leaves to visit Count Moral, who recognizes Wigalois as liege lord, now that Roaz is slain. Wigalois has now legitimately won Larie as wife, and two kingdoms: Korntin and Jeraphin on the Red Sea,[ca] a vassalage of their father (vv. 8483-8640).[157]
Epilogue
The fourth and final narrative phase. It is noted that the later phases follow the narrative pattern of the epic (chanson de geste), that is to say, the fantasy setting (and courtly love factor) of courtly romances become obscured, in favor of describing bellicose deeds reflecting real historical geopolitical Crescent/Christian conflict of the times,[158] and shows similarity with the chansons de geste or the Crusade cycle.[159]
The wedding and coronation celebrations of Wigalois and Larie: the festivities are to take place at Count Moral's domain Joraphas[4] (within the kingdom of Korntin);[160] invitation of princely guests; the would-be bride-queen Larie is also sent for, with Moral's nephew Bejolarz as messenger.[cb] Larie, her mother and servants journey in procession (vv. 8782–8920). Wigalois greets Larie; Moral organizes a tournament (vv. 8921–9049). The guests: King Rial of Jeraphin;[cc] Three princes of Medarie[cd] Elamie, Queen of Tyre,[ce] and Marine, Count Adan's granddaughter[cf] and other guests.[cg] The coronation is performed. Assembly in the palace. Larie wears imperial crown. Marine wears crown as well as a knight's gear, for she aspires to gain fame by knightly deeds.[161] Rial holds Wigalois's sword, and Moral, the dragon-slaying lance. Marriage is confirmed, Wigalois is given crown to wear and scepter to hold. Feast and mass. Adan and Marine baptized (vv. 9443-9519). Rial and others are invested their lands as fiefdoms from Wigalois, who bids them to uphold the laws of Charlemagne (vv. 9520–9560).[161] Arrival of Gawein, Erec, Lanzelet, and Iwein (vv. 9561-9640). Gawein chats with son saddened him when talking about Florie, but became joyful regarding his son achieving fame[162] (vv. 9641–9695).[ch] Gawein enchanted by Larie's beauty (vv. 9696-9770).
Avenging the murder of King Amire by King Lion: Festival ends after 12 days, when a squire to report the murder of King Amire of Libia[ci] by the hands of King Lion of Namur[cj] in a jousting match at Namur. Amire and his wife Liamere[ck] were on their way to Wigalois's coronation, but Lion had designs on Liamere, and forcibly abased her.[163]Since Liamere is a kinswoman of Larien,[cl] and Wigalois requested to avenge the murder (vv. 9770–9882). The idea of mustering a strong force is discouraged by Erec who deems it unnecessary (vv. 9883–9936). A messenger is sent to declare a feud against Lion, Liameren dies in despair. Lion belatedly remorseful, yet rebuffs messenger with defiant speech (vv. 9937–10207). News of Liamere's death is brought to Korntin, and everyone laments, but soon goes back to making cold calculations. Author delves into polemic over the sinful times, and nearing of the apocalypse envisioned by John (10208–10305).[164] Army issues forth[cm] and reaches Namur (vv. 10306–10716). Siege and capture of Namur, with Lion killed by Gawein (vv. 10717–11156), the duchy and city of Namur is given to Count Moral. Princes and soldiers are also rewarded from the treasury. Lion is given dignified burial suiting his noble birth, and Amire's body[cn] is buried next to Liamere's coffin (vv. 11157–11237). Wigalois occupies the border region and commands fair administration. The princely guests return to their homes in foreign countries. Wigalois, his wife, and the Knights of the Round Table, go to Nantes,[co] and along the way, a squire brings news of death of hero's mother, Florie (vv. 11238–11391). At Arthur's court, King Arthur and Ginovere greet guests; after seven days, Wigalois bids farewell, but Gawein gives him fatherly lessons upon leaving (11392–11595). Wigalois leads a long married life, ruling wisely. Larie bears him a son, Lifort Gawanide[s][cp] who later gains fame in his own right, and the poet claims the story is available in Italian, and though he claims to be insufficiently skill to undertake[168] he hints that with proper encouragement, he might have been persuaded to undertake writing it[169] (11596–11674). The author's epilogue claims he only got the original story for the present tale from the mouth of a squire, as aforementioned (vv. 11675–11708).
Question of source
Only a certain portion of Wigalois (vv. 1530– 3150,[170] the second narrative block) is based on the corresponding French poem Le Bel Inconnu (6266 verses; one manuscript; end of the 12th century).[16] As for some of the rest, Wirnt may quite conceivably have crafted episodes based on historical events.[171] The Arthurian epic Le Chevalier au papegau[fr] (15th cent.) resembles Wigalois, but it is thought that the French work probably borrowed the material and not the other way around.[171][172] It remains possible that Wirnt may also have made a pastiche of various French texts.
Wirnt in the epilogue of the Wigalois claims he owes the narrated story solely to the oral tale collected from a squire (11686ff.),[6] but this was probably a fictive device to grant himself pretext to diverge from relating the story in a conservative fashion that the genre demanded.[6]
In the beginning of the romance, the motif experienced by Sir Gawain of leaving his sweetheart's homeland, never to find it again, is paralleled by the German short story Germelshausen (1860) and the musical Brigadoon (1947).[48]
As for the stone of virtue test which Wigalois passes, a similar Ehrenstein ("stone of honor"; Middle High German: der êren steine) occurs in Lanzelet v. 5177, and a similar test for women (mantle of chastity) in Lanzelet vv. 5835-6140.[175]
Wigalois earns the moniker Knight of the Wheel, since he chose his heraldic device from the Wheel of Fortune found in his mother's castle, as already described above (§Fortuna and the Wheel), and he is under the protection of Lady Fortune (Diu sælde; Frau Saelde).[4][176] Wigalois's bride to be Larie is also repeatedly referenced as being Dame Fortune's toything or pleasure (sældes spil)[177]
There is the recurrent motif of the Christians defeating the heathens,[5] and their ordeals are contextualized as a proxy battle between Heaven and hell,[6] as aforementioned. There is much that is borrowed from the Revelation of John, and the apostle John (Johannes) is specifically invoked by the author at vv. 10275–305,[5] where the narrator Wirnt engages in some eschatological preaching.[178]
The stronghold of Roaz, the devil's minion, is depicted with imagery borrowed from John's visions, as analyzed by translator J. W. Thomas. Roaz's castle at Glois is surrounded by an almost miasmic mist produced by the nearby swamps, reminiscent of the smoke that obscured the sun and the moon and which summoned the plague of locusts, as according to Revelation 9:2–3. The locusts of Revelation are "hybrid" (composite) creatures, which are like warhorses, but with human faces and lion's teeth, and breastplate (Revelation 9:12), this together with the fire-breathing horses of the Apocalypse (Revelation 9:17) seems to have inspired the imagery of the centaur in the castle of Glois, which was dog-headed, covered in hard scales, threw fire from a pot, and withdrew into the pitch-like fog.[179]
Joachim Bumke[de] uses this early dated romance as a historical resource to reconstruct the particulars of courtly manners, rites, and costumes. For instance, the knighting ceremony,[180] the buhurt[de] (horsemanship games, as opposed to the tournament involving swords and lances[181]) held in honor of Larie.[182] Attention has also been paid to the moon and stars decorated fish-skin mantle worn by Florie which is specifically addressed in the work as being "courtly";[183] Bumke has compared it to the zodiac motif mantle actually worn by the Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1024).[184][186]
The arched hall of the so-called summer house[192] at Runkelstein Castle was painted c.1400 with scenes from the Wigalois, commissioned by Niklaus Vintler[de] and his brother Franz.[193][194][195][14][6] The wall paintings are executed using terra verde pigments[194] and are connected to other illustrations of literary works such as Tristan and Isolde from the same period in this castle.
1 2 Rôaz von Glois. Named here at v. 3653. Glois is glossed by Benecke and others as a county (Grafschaft) beyond Korntin (jenseit Korentin),[97][98][99] but Brown states Glois is a "Korntinian city".[100] Paul Piper writes that Glois is on the border of Korntin.[101]
1 2 3 Cf. Hofert (2022), pp.121–142 (Brot, Schutzbrief, Blüte) and Martin[8] for various magical items.
1 2 Although "fisherman" (Fischer) is used by editors,[125][126][127] the text calls the man a peasant (gebûr, v. 5458).
1 2 Karriôz v. 6602; whose mother was a wild woman ("sîn mutoer was ein wildez wîp)" v. 6603, but an altogether different wild woman from Ruel.[144]
↑ Middle High German: Karidôl, v. 150; rendered as "Caridoel" by J. W. Thomas,[51] whereas "Karidol" is used by Neil Thomas,[52] who identifies it with Camelot.[53]. However, the form Kardoel (in Anglo-Norman, etc.) is usually glossed as being "Carlisle".
↑ The German term Tugendstein for this stone occurs in scholarship,[82] but this does not exactly occur in the MHG text. Seelbach & Seelbach ed. tr. (2014) index for Tugendstein points to vv. 1478–1479 which reads "..einen breiten stein, / des tugent im inz herze schein". Even Gawain could not touch the stone of virtue, because he once fondled a maiden without her consent.[83]
↑ v. 1716, but her name is only revealed much later as Nêrejâ at v. 4069.
↑ As per "lord of the castle" in Luttrell (1974), p.100. This personage is first described by Nereja as a "valiant man" or hero (helt, mod. Ger. Held) living in a "house" (hûs) nearby, where Thomas tr. (1977), p.125 omits "house" (vv. 1932–1933). In a later passage the lines "das hûs was im sô nâhen / daz si dar abe sâhen..der wirt wolde niht bîten" (vv. 1968–1971) is translated by Thomas tr. (1977), p.126 as "The castle was near enough for those in it to see him riding fully armed. Its lord would not wait.." even though ehe can mean anything from "master of the house" "husband" or "lord of the land".[90]Benecke ed. (1819), endnote to v. 1969, p. 448 annotates that this line should be read as "die Leute auf der Burg (people of the castle)" seeing Wigalois, and the summary by Kapteyn ed. (1926), p.79* also uses the terms Burg and Burgherrn ("castle" and "castle lord").
↑ cf. Leiden ms. B, fol. 22r miniature painting of fight against the giant armed with a wooden branch.
↑ cf. Leiden ms. B, fol. 24r miniature painting of the fight against knight with swan as helm-crest and dog blazoned on shield.
↑ The narrator gives polemic about the people of this age who would assault or at least heckle any woman they find riding alone (vv. 2358–2393).[92]
↑ Her name Êlamîe and identity will not be revealed until v. 9126 ff. 9184, but in a short while, she will take Wigalois to the tent of her cousin, the daughter of the Queen of Persia, to be provided hospitality (vv. 2602–2752). This princess of Persia is painted in ms. k, fol. 60v, suiting up Herr Wigalois ("her wigeliß") in full armor.
↑ cf. Leiden ms. B, fol. 28v miniature painting of the meeting of the parties, the green bird inside a propped cage.
↑ von Mannesvelt geborn,/ der grâve Hójir was er genant [A Hogyr; BHoyir; Cd Hoygir] vv. 2861–2; der rôte rîter v. 2936. Cf. Parzival also defeats a "Red Knight" called Ither.
↑ Schaffilûn, King of Medârîe und Belakûn vv. 9095–6.
↑ Korntîn [ABS korntin; C korentin; M chvrintein; k kortin; l kürtin] v. 3213.
↑ Schaffilun had spent ten years journeying towards the quest, losing much wealth and men, and cannot easily relinquish it. He also tries to advise Wigalois he is too young for the task which had already killed many previous challengers.
↑ In the general lamentation (including the narrator), Wigalois orders the six squire he had previously been given by Schaffilun and orders them to arrange a funeral for their former master, after which they are to go to Arthur's court (vv. 3488–3606).
↑ cf. Leiden ms. B, fol. 36v miniature painting of jousting scene. The text corresponds from vv. 3539–3540 "ir deweder deheiner rîterschaft / sô starker nie begunde" ("Neither had ever before been in such a fierce combat", Thomas tr. (1977), p.143) to vv. 3562–3564 where the people lament.
1 2 grôze wurm Pfetân v. 4956. Conjectured to be from Python of Greek mythology.[117]
↑ The princess is not named until later at v. 4056.
↑ lêbart[107] v. 3878, tr. "From the head down it is like a leopard";[108] Thomas's summary gives "creature with two horns and a crown".[109]
↑ German: truhsæze (v. 3949); German: Der truchseß von Roimunt: Azzadac, v. 8853 (cf. Kapteyn ed. Namenverzeichnis, p. 499). Kuyper's summary explains the Steward's device, according to Kapteyn is a golden roebuck or leopard (cf. lebard, v. 3878) on a field azure, though it says he wears a green surcoat with a roebuck (cf. rêhboc, v. 3894) shape appliqué on each side, cut from samite (cf. Thomas tr. (1977), p.147) (where samite is silk fabric that is typically red with gold threading).
↑ In the Leiden ms., fol. 40v, the text of vv. 3958–3980 is illuminated with the horseback combat scene.
↑ cf. the painting in ms. k, fol. 82r (top image above) where Wigalois has removed his armor before Larie and the next painting in this codex, at fol. 83r where Queen Amena is giving the hand of Larie to Wigalois.[110]
↑ cf. Leiden ms. B, fol. 45v where Larie is passing over the silk bag containing the bread, as noted by Hofert (2022), pp.140–141 who comments on the emblem (double gold cross on green field) on the bag.
↑ cf. Leiden ms. B, fol. 47r miniature painting of the fight involving mounted knights with red flames issuing from them.[114] These ghostly knights are also depicted in two panels of the Runkelstein frescoes (on the south wall of the summer house), captioned die brunnenselen "the burning souls".[115][116]
↑ Beginning "sîn houbt was âne mâze grôz.." vv. 5028–44, 5055–74 that it had a black and shaggy head, with a naked muzzle/beak a fathom (Klafter) long and a yard (Ell) wide. It was covered with horny scales, with a tall and sharp ridge running from head to back, like the one with which a crocodile cuts ships in two), and it had a long tail, cockscomb-like crest, a belly that was grass-green, griffin-like feet, a pair of wings that shimmered like peacock feathers, etc.,[118][119] As for the hairy head and naked muzzle (mod. Ger. tr. "Sein Haupt war maßlos gross, schwarz, behaart, sein blßes Maul.."), the original MHG adjective rûch at v. 5029 is literally "rough, unsmooth", but the same word recurs to describe "coarse-haired like bear" at v. 5068.[120] The "ridge" (grât, mod. Ger. Grat) is translated as "a sharp spine.. from head to tail" by Thomas.[121]
↑ cf. Leiden ms. B, fol. 53r, 53v miniature paintings of the dragon. Not depicted in k, and only 1 illustration among the printed editions (1519). Three panels devoted to Drachenkampf in the Runkelstein frescoes.[122]
↑ The word rise is glossed by Benecke as a term only common in the south for a slope Abhang) where trees are felled,[124] but Kapteyn's summary uses Steinrinne "stone gully".
↑ Meanwhile, Beleare found her husband alive, and transported him and the corpses of the three knights to a castle (vv. 5141-5246). Count Moral recounted how he was rescued.
↑ On a fine point: v. 5456 Middle High German: "vil lützel maht âne sin" is literally "very little strength, without his senses", (Sinn). Seelbach & Seelbach ed. tr. (2005), pp.115–116 renders as "ohnmächtigen... nur wenig erstarken", i.e. "strengthened only a bit", whereas Thomas tr. (1977), p.165 reduces this to saying it "neither brought [him] to his senses nor made him stronger" when she splashed the "water in her cupped hands".
↑ Followed by dialogue between the poet and his Conscience (Sinn) on whether one can still remain pleasant in character when bereft of possessions.
↑ Armor worn by an emperor which King Jorel (Jorêl)of Korntin (either Larie's grandfather, or an alias name of her father Lar[136]) entrusted to the count for his daughter's future husband. Lamere (Lâmêre) looted it from Libia, vv. 6091–5, then his brother Brien (Brîen v. 6101) slew his Lamere over this armor, and brought it to Jorel vv. 6069–73, 6101–3[137]
↑ Middle High German: hauberc, v. 6128. "helm dar mit dem rade guldîn;” vv. 6147–8. Translators supplement "sîn Schild” "seinen [eigenen] Schild" / "his [own] shield" v. 6160. Gwigalois rejects the griffin claw shield offered him. Surcoat is Middle High German: wâfenroc v. 6167. The "sweet lady" girt on the sword to his body v. 6167.[138][139] He regains his old sword according to Kapteyn's summary.
↑ Rûel v. 6353. "black and shaggy as a bear. She had neither great beauty nor good manners".[141] She had long hanging hair down to her hips, large teeth, also long dog-like ears flopping down one foot, hump on her back and also forehead, pendulous breasts sagging at her sides, sturdy legs with crooked feet, vv. 6285–6354.[141][140] The author contrasts the wild women with the beautiful Enite from Hartman's Erec, for the wild woman had claws like a griffin's, and not the "pink palms which one sees on lovely ladies" but hands as "hard as a bear's". Comparison is also made to Jeschute, the beloved of Parzival.[141]
↑ Her husband Feroz (Ferôz v. 6356) was killed when his moribund opponent Flojir of Belamunt (Flojîr von Belamunt v. 6357) dragged him to the bottom of the sea.[142]
↑ That Karrioz was Muslim is shown by figure of Mohammed (Machmet) on his shield: "the boss was formed by a golden flower.. a narrow border of red gold enclosed a gleaming white field in which.. there was a pillar of azurite and gold.. on it sat Mohammed".[145] A different interpretation is that rather than a central boss there is an "middle shield" or rather escutcheon with flower design on a white field, which displays a personal coat-of-arms; there is a gold line[?] indicating affiliation (knight of Glois), and in the Mohammed sitting on the blue-gold column must fit somewhere on the side of the border.[146]
↑ Marriën (German summary, Benecke ed. (1819), p.87*), Marriên, v. 7030. "Marrien" (English tr.[149]) or "Marrie".[8]
↑ Name not revealed until much later as Garel of Mirmidon (ze Mirmidône, v. 7853, Gârel von Mirmiône 8627.
↑ cf. two gray-bearded gatekeepers, Leiden ms. B fol. 74v.
↑ The gatekeeper who has sworn allegiance to Wigalois. It is here explained that the two gatekeepers had been forced into serving Roaz after being defeated by him.
↑ The narrator engages in another sermon: " ..spears may be splintered when a charge is made by one who does not come in peace"; adding that if "Eastern lords undertook a tournament at The Sand", they would not able to maintain sportsmanship for long because when participants get caught in the sand, they will surely go for the booty of capturing armor.[156]
↑ Whose king, Rial (Rîâl von Jeraphîn) is named at v. 9057.
↑ Bejolarz v. 8717, son of Count Leodarz (Lêodarz) as father and Bejolare (Bejolâre), sister of Count Moral, as mother.
↑ Medârîe v. 9083 f. Princes under King Schaffilun (Schaffilûn) of Medarie and Belakun (Belakûn), who was killed by Wigalois (9095 ff.) when they fought as rivals for the Korntin quest to gain Larie as bride.
↑ Êlamîe [von] Tyrô vv. 9176, 84, whom Wigalois helped, after her beauty prizes were wrested by the red-armored Count Hojir of Mannesvelt.
↑ Zaradech and Panshavar (Zaradech und Panschavar v. 9224), two kings from Asia, brothers of Roaz's wife Japhite; a multitude of pagan dukes and counts (9235 ff.).
↑ Followed by he poet's rhetoric in praise of women.
↑ Liamere is daughter of King Garez of Libia (Gârez von Lîbîâ v. 9878), cousin of King Lar of Korntin, Lar being Larie's dead father.
↑ Banner of Roimunt: a stag in black velvet (10360ff.).
↑ Earlier Amire's embalmed body (literally treated with balm/balsam) laid in a precious stone casket, v. 10722.[165] Here his body is being buried, v. 11210[166]
1 2 Kalinke, Marianne E.[in Icelandic] (1996). "Wigoleis vom Rade ("Wigoleis of the Wheel")". In Lacy, Norris J.; etal. (eds.). The Arthurian Encyclopedia. New York: Peter Bedrick. p.639. ISBN9781136606335.; New edition 2013, "Wigoleis vom Rade", p. 514. Also cross-referenced to Kalinke (1996) "Gabons saga ok Vigoles", p. 202 and Kalinke (1996) "Her Viegoleis med Guld Hiule", p. 278.
↑ Ehrstine, Glenn (January 2003). "[Review] Ein jüdischer Artusritter: Studien zum jüdisch-deutschen "Widuwilt" ("Artushof") und zum "Wigalois" des Wirnt von Gravenberc Achim Jaeger". Speculum. 78 (1): 210–37. JSTOR3301495.
↑ As per Thomas tr. (1977), p.103, quoted by Brown (2015), p.142 where it is noted that the line occurs in two mss. including Leiden but is wanting elsewhere.
↑ Thomas (2005), pp.48–49, quoting vv. 613–617 and vv. 562–570.
↑ Thomas (2005), p.45: "inaccessibility of the Otherworld and the notion of 'time-warp' [taking] Gawein twelve days to reach Florie's realm.. but six months to return to Camelot [Caradoel]".
↑ Part 2 already ends here in Brown (2015), p.24's analysis, with the ekphrasis items being stone of virtue (vv. 1477–1529) and the heraldic device of the golden wheel (on the shield and helm). Thus the adventure-filled journey (which is the meat of Part 2 in Schiewer's analysis) is unaccounted by Brown, whose Part 3 begins (as with Schiewer), with the main quest against Roaz the usurper.
↑ Oehme, Annegret (2020). : Höfische Epik. 2. Teil. Deutsche National-Litteratur 4-1-2. Universitätsverlag Potsdam. p.220. Archived from the original on 2009-05-20.
↑ vv. 5831-5936 quoted with translation in Brown (2015), pp.112–113. German scholars interject that he thinks himself an "unfree" peasant ("unfreier Bauer",[131] "Ich bin ein Unfreier".[132][133]
1 2 Mosely-Christian, Michell (2021). "4. Hybridity, Media, and Source Material in Visual Representations of the Wild Woman". In Elston, Ashley; Rislow, Madeline (eds.). Hybridity in Early Modern Art. Taylor & Francis. p.69. ISBN9781000429824.
↑ Schiewer (1993), pp.156, quoting vv. 10275–305 where Thomas tr. (1977), p.220 gives: "..we are pulled away with the tongs of death. Greed and worldly riches have betrayed us..". Schiewer refers to the literarily described hellish imagery as "pareneticmemento mori".
Bumke, Joachim[in German] (1986). Höfische Kultur: Literatur und Gesellschaft im hohen Mittelalter (in German). München: Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag. ISBN9783423307789.
Cormeau, Christoph[in German] (1977). "Wigalois" und "Diu Crône". Zwei Kapitel zur Gattungsgeschichte des nachklassischen Aventiureromans. Münchener Texte und Untersuchungen zur deutschen Literatur des Mittelalters 57 (in German). München: Artemis.
Gräber, Antonia Irene (2001). Bild und Text bei Wirnts von Gravenberg 'Wigalois'[Illustration and Text in Wirnt's von Gravenberg 'Wigalois'](PDF) (MA) (in German). Albert-Ludwigs-Universität zu Freiburg i. Br.
Honemann, Volker[in German] (2020). "8. The Wigalois Narratives". In Jackson, Harry; Ranawak, Silvia A. (eds.). The Arthur of the Germans: The Arthurian Legend in Medieval German and Dutch Literature. University of Wales Press. pp.142–154. ISBN9781786837370.
Jacobs, Jef; Verkerk, Barend, eds. (2025). The Leiden Wigalois Manuscript (in German). Amsterdam University Press. pp.146–159. ISBN9789087284947.
Schanze, Christoph (2022). "Ritter und Damen mit Hündchen: Zu einem rekurrenten Bildmotiv im Leidener Wigalois-Codex". In Dietl, Cora[in German]; Schanze, Christoph; Wolfzettel, Friedrich (eds.). Artusroman und Bildlichkeit (in German). New York: Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. pp.151–182. ISBN9783110769982.
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