1920 United States presidential election in Illinois

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1920 United States presidential election in Illinois
Flag of Illinois (1915-1969).svg
  1916 November 2, 1920 1924  

All 29 Illinois votes to the Electoral College
  Warren G Harding-Harris & Ewing crop.jpg James M. Cox 1920.jpg
Nominee Warren G. Harding James M. Cox
Party Republican Democratic
Home state Ohio Ohio
Running mate Calvin Coolidge Franklin D. Roosevelt
Electoral vote290
Popular vote1,420,480534,395
Percentage67.81%25.51%

Illinois Presidential Election Results 1920.svg
County Results

President before election

Woodrow Wilson
Democratic

Elected President

Warren G. Harding
Republican

The 1920 United States presidential election in Illinois took place on November 2, 1920, as part of the 1920 United States presidential election. State voters chose 29 representatives, or electors, to the Electoral College, who voted for president and vice president.

Contents

A strongly Democratic state during the Second Party System, Illinois became Republican-leaning after the American Civil War due to a combination of strong Free Soil Party heritage amongst its Yankee northern counties with the wartime conversion of some Virginian-settled rock-ribbed Democratic Southern Illinois counties [1] to Unionist Republicanism [2] à la Appalachia. [3] Between the Civil War and World War I, partisanship in Illinois – like in the Border States – largely re-fought the war, with the result that although the Democratic Party gained at least 43 percent of the statewide vote via Southern and German Catholic support in every election up to 1900, they never gained an absolute majority and carried the state's electoral votes only in 1892. [4]

Due to the Democratic Party's growing Populist and prohibitionist leanings, a decline in Democratic support after 1900 in its German Central Illinois strongholds transformed Illinois into a powerfully Republican state at all levels. [5] Even Woodrow Wilson in 1912 when the GOP was mortally divided carried the state by only a very narrow margin. Harding's managers were always confident he would carry the Prairie State as all but three GOP nominees had since that party was formed. [6] However, actual polls in Illinois vacillated, with a straw ballot in The Farm Journal even placing Cox at 45 percent in this strong Republican state. [7] As election day neared, estimates of a Republican plurality of “at least 264,000” were made via a national survey of newspaper editors. [8]

As it turned out, the editorial estimate was shown extremely conservative by the very earliest reports on polling day, which showed Harding winning by three-to-one. [9] Ultimately, Harding did not finish with so large a margin as this, but nonetheless he carried Illinois by 42.30 percentage points. This constitutes the biggest margin by which Illinois has been carried in the state's presidential election history, the best performance by any Republican candidate, [4] and the third-best vote percentage overall behind Andrew Jackson’s two efforts in 1828 and 1832. Harding carried all but three counties, and was the first-ever Republican victor in the following counties: Calhoun, Cass, Clinton, Effingham, Gallatin, Hamilton, Jasper, Jersey, Mason, Pike, Schuyler, Wabash and White. [10]

Primaries

The general election coincided with the general election for other federal offices (Senate and House), as well as those for state offices. [11]

Turnout

The total vote in the state-run primary elections (Democratic, Republican, Socialist) was 408,586. [11]

The total vote in the general election was 2,094,714. [11] Both major parties, as well as the Socialist Party, held non-binding state-run preferential primaries on April 13. [11]

Democratic

1920 Illinois Democratic presidential primary
Flag of Illinois.svg
  1916 April 13, 1920 (1920-04-13) 1924  
  Edward Irving Edwards (1).jpg William Gibbs McAdoo, formal photo portrait, 1914 (1).jpg Wm. Jennings Bryan LCCN2016851700 (1).jpg
Candidate Edward I. Edwards William G. McAdoo William Jennings Bryan
Home state New Jersey California Nebraska
Popular vote6,1173,4011,879
Percentage33.04%18.37%10.15%

The 1920 Illinois Democratic presidential primary was held on April 13, 1920 in the U.S. state of Illinois as one of the Democratic Party's state primaries ahead of the 1920 presidential election.

The popular vote was a non-binding "beauty contest". Delegates were instead elected by direct votes by congressional district on delegate candidates. [11] Delegate candidates either were listed on the ballot with their preference on for a particular presidential candidate, or were listed as expressing no preference. [11] However, these delegates officially were uninstructed. 50 of the sate's 58 convention delegates were elected by this means, with eight further uninstructed delegates later being selected May 10 at the state party convention. [12]

1920 Illinois Democratic presidential primary [11]
CandidateVotes %
Edward I. Edwards (write-in)6,11733.04
William G. McAdoo (write-in)3,40118.37
William J. Bryan (write-in)1,87910.15
Woodrow Wilson (incumbent) (write-in)8794.75
Champ Clark (write-in)5362.90
James M. Cox (write-in)2591.40
James Hamilton Lewis (write-in)380.21
Scattering5,40529.19
Total votes18,514 100

Republican

1920 Illinois Republican presidential primary
Flag of Illinois.svg
  1916 April 13, 1920 (1920-04-13) 1924  
  Frank O Lowden portrait (1).jpg Leonard Wood 1903 (1).jpg Hiram Johnson 2 (1).jpg
Candidate Frank Orren Lowden Leonard Wood Hiram Johnson
Home state Illinois New Hampshire California
Popular vote197,073132,52256,242
Percentage50.54%33.98%14.42%

The 1920 Illinois Republican presidential primary was held on April 13, 1920 in the U.S. state of Illinois as one of the Republican Party's state primaries ahead of the 1920 presidential election.

The preference vote was a "beauty contest". Delegates were instead selected by direct vote in each congressional district on delegate candidates. [11] Delegate candidates either were listed on the ballot with their preference on for a particular presidential candidate, or were listed as expressing no preference. [11]

1920 Illinois Republican presidential primary [11]
CandidateVotes %
Frank O. Lowden 197,07350.54
Leonard Wood 132,52233.98
Hiram W. Johnson (write-in)56,24214.42
Herbert Hoover (write-in)2,2740.58
William Hale Thompson (write-in)6860.18
Scattering1,1690.30
Total votes389,966 100

Socialist

1920 Illinois Socialist presidential primary
Flag of Illinois.svg
  1916 April 13, 1920 (1920-04-13)
  EugeneVictorDebs (1).jpg
Candidate Eugene V. Debs
Home state Indiana
Popular vote102
Percentage96.23%

The 1920 Illinois Socialist presidential primary was held on April 13, 1920 in the U.S. state of Illinois as one of the Socialist Party's state primaries ahead of the 1920 presidential election.

1920 Illinois Socialist presidential primary [11]
CandidateVotes %
Eugene V. Debs 10296.23
Scattering43.77
Total votes106 100

Results

Presidential Candidate Running Mate PartyElectoral Vote (EV)Popular Vote (PV) [11]
Warren G. Harding of Ohio Calvin Coolidge Republican 291,420,48067.81%
James M. Cox Franklin D. Roosevelt Democratic 0534,39525.51%
Eugene V. Debs Seymour Stedman Socialist 074,7473.57%
Parley P. Christensen Max S. Hayes Farmer-Labor 049,6302.37%
Aaron S. Watkins Leigh Colvin Prohibition 011,2160.54%
William Wesley Cox August Gillhaus Socialist Labor 03,4710.17%
Robert MacauleyRichard BarnumSingle Tax07750.04%

Results by county

CountyWarren Gamaliel Harding
Republican
James Middleton Cox
Democratic
Eugene Victor Debs
Socialist
Parley Parker Christensen
Farmer-Labor
Various candidates
Other parties
MarginTotal votes cast [13]
#%#%#%#%#%#%
Adams 12,85257.07%7,22232.07%3731.66%1,8778.33%1970.87%5,63025.00%22,521
Alexander 5,28761.92%3,16737.09%580.68%50.06%220.26%2,12024.83%8,539
Bond 3,66264.67%1,53327.07%450.79%1913.37%2324.10%2,12937.59%5,663
Boone 5,38689.39%4968.23%1041.73%100.17%290.48%4,89081.16%6,025
Brown 1,59045.08%1,86652.91%70.20%50.14%591.67%-276-7.83%3,527
Bureau 9,96874.94%2,35417.70%6074.56%1861.40%1871.41%7,61457.24%13,302
Calhoun 1,36764.82%70333.33%140.66%40.19%211.00%66431.48%2,109
Carroll 5,19486.65%60610.11%871.45%651.08%420.70%4,58876.54%5,994
Cass 3,95654.06%2,86139.10%530.72%3745.11%741.01%1,09514.96%7,318
Champaign 15,57371.83%5,24724.20%1590.73%4091.89%2931.35%10,32647.63%21,681
Christian 7,53552.75%5,39837.79%3472.43%7415.19%2641.85%2,13714.96%14,285
Clark 5,31255.35%4,18143.57%330.34%70.07%640.67%1,13111.78%9,597
Clay 3,68359.90%2,35838.35%751.22%90.15%240.39%1,32521.55%6,149
Clinton 4,56463.71%1,66123.19%2413.36%6308.79%680.95%2,90340.52%7,164
Coles 8,56358.76%5,81139.87%860.59%90.06%1050.72%2,75218.88%14,574
Cook 635,19771.12%197,49922.11%52,4755.88%4,9660.56%3,0000.34%437,69849.01%893,137
Crawford 5,18855.02%4,09243.39%520.55%20.02%961.02%1,09611.62%9,430
Cumberland 3,09558.18%2,16240.64%110.21%30.06%490.92%93317.54%5,320
DeKalb 10,37483.93%1,70013.75%1631.32%430.35%810.66%8,67470.17%12,361
DeWitt 5,00160.68%3,07937.36%520.63%390.47%710.86%1,92223.32%8,242
Douglas 4,88565.21%2,30830.81%510.68%1481.98%991.32%2,57734.40%7,491
DuPage 12,28082.00%2,08413.92%3492.33%1210.81%1420.95%10,19668.08%14,976
Edgar 6,75053.29%5,69444.95%1361.07%60.05%810.64%1,0568.34%12,667
Edwards 3,00279.21%74219.58%00.00%00.00%461.21%2,26059.63%3,790
Effingham 4,17657.47%2,98541.08%430.59%160.22%470.65%1,19116.39%7,267
Fayette 5,75858.48%3,82438.84%1081.10%450.46%1111.13%1,93419.64%9,846
Ford 4,99582.40%95815.80%220.36%300.49%570.94%4,03766.60%6,062
Franklin 7,60851.11%4,89432.88%5843.92%1,63010.95%1701.14%2,71418.23%14,886
Fulton 9,52359.25%5,29332.93%7434.62%2481.54%2651.65%4,23026.32%16,072
Gallatin 2,18449.94%2,00045.74%370.85%1162.65%360.82%1844.21%4,373
Greene 3,68547.96%3,77649.15%630.82%1101.43%490.64%-91-1.18%7,683
Grundy 4,64780.05%80313.83%821.41%2253.88%480.83%3,84466.22%5,805
Hamilton 3,22054.71%2,59144.02%270.46%240.41%240.41%62910.69%5,886
Hancock 7,37957.75%5,12540.11%640.50%320.25%1781.39%2,25417.64%12,778
Hardin 1,55561.54%94337.32%80.32%100.40%110.44%61224.22%2,527
Henderson 2,74776.65%74020.65%230.64%140.39%601.67%2,00756.00%3,584
Henry 12,37978.96%2,53016.14%4362.78%1290.82%2031.29%9,84962.82%15,677
Iroquois 9,18677.79%2,42920.57%350.30%200.17%1391.18%6,75757.22%11,809
Jackson 8,00359.96%4,57534.28%750.56%5904.42%1040.78%3,42825.68%13,347
Jasper 3,27951.63%2,97146.78%410.65%60.09%540.85%3084.85%6,351
Jefferson 5,71153.57%4,77244.77%640.60%300.28%830.78%9398.81%10,660
Jersey 2,87357.90%1,99940.29%230.46%200.40%470.95%87417.61%4,962
Jo Daviess 6,09876.25%1,60420.06%2032.54%280.35%640.80%4,49456.20%7,997
Johnson 2,97270.91%1,13727.13%380.91%280.67%160.38%1,83543.78%4,191
Kane 26,83282.82%4,32313.34%7562.33%2780.86%2090.65%22,50969.48%32,398
Kankakee 12,85379.33%2,82817.46%820.51%3532.18%850.52%10,02561.88%16,201
Kendall 3,45987.99%43911.17%80.20%30.08%220.56%3,02076.83%3,931
Knox 12,55973.85%2,85216.77%2331.37%1,1846.96%1771.04%9,70757.08%17,005
Lake 15,71282.28%2,32112.15%7874.12%1590.83%1170.61%13,39170.12%19,096
LaSalle 23,75173.23%6,62620.43%9272.86%9432.91%1870.58%17,12552.80%32,434
Lawrence 4,72054.17%3,70742.54%1001.15%70.08%1802.07%1,01311.62%8,714
Lee 7,61578.94%1,71517.78%1731.79%380.39%1051.09%5,90061.17%9,646
Livingston 10,38274.83%3,10122.35%740.53%1951.41%1220.88%7,28152.48%13,874
Logan 6,95764.79%3,23230.10%1991.85%1981.84%1521.42%3,72534.69%10,738
Macon 16,48665.27%7,91731.35%3781.50%2360.93%2400.95%8,56933.93%25,257
Macoupin 8,70044.68%5,93630.49%1,2086.20%3,32017.05%3061.57%2,76414.20%19,470
Madison 19,24957.82%10,14930.48%1,0003.00%2,6137.85%2810.84%9,10027.33%33,292
Marion 6,62052.06%4,35134.22%1571.23%1,37910.85%2081.64%2,26917.85%12,715
Marshall 3,73467.61%1,56828.39%1081.96%801.45%330.60%2,16639.22%5,523
Mason 3,84258.40%2,59539.44%430.65%290.44%701.06%1,24718.95%6,579
Massac 3,73182.98%68815.30%140.31%290.65%340.76%3,04367.68%4,496
McDonough 7,22163.18%3,93034.38%1181.03%300.26%1311.15%3,29128.79%11,430
McHenry 9,88585.10%1,53613.22%1040.90%280.24%630.54%8,34971.88%11,616
McLean 16,68065.27%6,41125.09%1330.52%1,9047.45%4271.67%10,26940.18%25,555
Menard 2,88259.19%1,86438.28%300.62%240.49%691.42%1,01820.91%4,869
Mercer 5,53174.58%1,57421.22%901.21%1021.38%1191.60%3,95753.36%7,416
Monroe 2,95570.11%93222.11%421.00%2716.43%150.36%2,02348.00%4,215
Montgomery 7,42952.92%4,75633.88%2161.54%1,3659.72%2731.94%2,67319.04%14,039
Morgan 8,16962.87%4,44734.23%1511.16%1140.88%1120.86%3,72228.65%12,993
Moultrie 3,27955.76%2,51342.73%240.41%170.29%480.82%76613.02%5,881
Ogle 9,32282.99%1,72015.31%750.67%130.12%1030.92%7,60267.68%11,233
Peoria 24,54166.00%9,45325.42%7121.91%2,1745.85%3020.81%15,08840.58%37,182
Perry 4,59858.47%2,47831.51%1011.28%5446.92%1431.82%2,12026.96%7,864
Piatt 4,28368.16%1,90330.28%340.54%40.06%600.95%2,38037.87%6,284
Pike 5,56454.12%4,27941.62%1781.73%680.66%1911.86%1,28512.50%10,280
Pope 2,48677.42%68721.40%240.75%80.25%60.19%1,79956.03%3,211
Pulaski 4,00262.85%2,27635.74%450.71%80.13%370.58%1,72627.10%6,368
Putnam 1,62374.04%36216.51%723.28%1195.43%160.73%1,26157.53%2,192
Randolph 6,18062.54%3,18132.19%1351.37%3053.09%810.82%2,99930.35%9,882
Richland 3,02657.05%2,17440.99%410.77%50.09%581.09%85216.06%5,304
Rock Island 21,90871.32%5,20816.95%2,2217.23%1,1233.66%2590.84%16,70054.36%30,719
Saline 6,72252.96%3,50027.58%700.55%2,32118.29%790.62%3,22225.39%12,692
Sangamon 21,82059.42%11,00029.95%7522.05%2,6917.33%4601.25%10,82029.46%36,723
Schuyler 2,80053.86%2,25843.43%240.46%80.15%1092.10%54210.43%5,199
Scott 2,07552.25%1,78644.98%190.48%441.11%471.18%2897.28%3,971
Shelby 6,35153.93%5,11343.42%680.58%330.28%2111.79%1,23810.51%11,776
St. Clair 21,68151.34%14,03233.23%1,3263.14%4,85111.49%3410.81%7,64918.11%42,231
Stark 2,75079.57%66119.13%130.38%160.46%160.46%2,08960.45%3,456
Stephenson 9,57074.64%2,77221.62%2722.12%990.77%1080.84%6,79853.02%12,821
Tazewell 7,67962.69%3,64029.71%2291.87%5464.46%1561.27%4,03932.97%12,250
Union 3,11945.55%3,66053.45%250.37%50.07%380.55%-541-7.90%6,847
Vermilion 18,17561.74%8,63429.33%3891.32%1,7145.82%5271.79%9,54132.41%29,439
Wabash 2,87152.40%2,51445.88%230.42%100.18%611.11%3576.52%5,479
Warren 6,30969.41%2,23624.60%1051.16%2803.08%1601.76%4,07344.81%9,090
Washington 4,51970.76%1,10217.26%661.03%65410.24%450.70%3,41753.51%6,386
Wayne 4,90860.50%3,13738.67%250.31%20.02%410.51%1,77121.83%8,113
White 4,49451.23%4,14847.29%891.01%50.06%360.41%3463.94%8,772
Whiteside 10,92381.74%1,92714.42%1250.94%2201.65%1681.26%8,99667.32%13,363
Will 21,74676.37%5,41019.00%4901.72%6822.40%1460.51%16,33657.37%28,474
Williamson 10,11856.73%4,72826.51%2961.66%2,40213.47%2901.63%5,39030.22%17,834
Winnebago 19,91379.23%3,35513.35%1,1754.67%5072.02%1840.73%16,55865.88%25,134
Woodford 4,92969.06%1,97727.70%761.06%690.97%861.20%2,95241.36%7,137
Totals1,420,48067.81%534,39525.51%74,7473.57%49,6302.37%15,4620.74%886,08542.30%2,094,714

Analysis

Despite Illinois’ position within the core of reliable Republican states in the “System of 1896”, at the beginning of the 1920 presidential campaign former Progressive Illinois Republican Harold L. Ickes came out against Republican nominee Warren Harding and supported the Democratic nominee, Ohio Governor James Cox. [14] Cox would visit the state on two occasions during his national fall campaign tour, once in September [15] and once in October. [16] In the first campaign, Cox claimed that Harding wanted to fund his campaign by imposing an onerous levy upon the coal dealers of Chicago, and said the Democrats were making every effort to win the state, [15] despite it having been Charles Evans Hughes’ fifth-strongest nationwide in 1916. [17] In the second, Cox criticized Harding’s stand on the League of Nations, [16] and argued that it would benefit American business and spiritual morals to enter therein.

At the end of the third week of October, another Illinois Republican leader in Morton D. Hull followed Ickes in deserting Harding and endorsing Cox, this time exclusively over the issue of the League of Nations. [18]

See also

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From March 9 to June 5, 1920, voters of the Republican Party elected delegates to the 1920 Republican National Convention for the purposing of choosing the party's nominee for president in the 1920 election.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1916 Republican Party presidential primaries</span> Selection of Republican US presidential candidate

From March 7 to June 6, through a series of primaries and caucuses, voters of the Republican Party elected delegates to the 1916 Republican National Convention, held June 7 to June 10, 1916, in Chicago, Illinois to choose the party's nominee for President of the United States. The delegate election process was inconclusive, with a small plurality supporting Associate Justice of the Supreme Court Charles Evans Hughes. Hughes eventually secured the nomination on the third ballot.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1920 United States presidential election in Wisconsin</span> Election in Wisconsin

The 1920 United States presidential election in Wisconsin was held on November 2, 1920, as part of the 1920 United States presidential election. State voters chose 13 electors to the Electoral College, who voted for president and vice president.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1952 United States presidential election in Illinois</span>

The 1952 United States presidential election in Illinois took place on November 4, 1952, as part of the 1952 United States presidential election. State voters chose 27 representatives, or electors, to the Electoral College, who voted for president and vice president.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1916 United States presidential election in Illinois</span> Election in Illinois

The 1916 United States presidential election in Illinois was held on November 7, 1916, as part of the 1916 United States presidential election. State voters chose 29 electors to the Electoral College, who voted for president and vice president.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1932 United States presidential election in Illinois</span> Election in Illinois

The 1932 United States presidential election in Illinois took place on November 8, 1932, as part of the 1932 United States presidential election. State voters chose 29 representatives, or electors, to the Electoral College, who voted for president and vice president.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1924 United States presidential election in Illinois</span> Election in Illinois

The 1924 United States presidential election in Illinois took place on November 4, 1924, as part of the 1924 United States presidential election. State voters chose 29 representatives, or electors, to the Electoral College, who voted for president and vice president.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1928 United States presidential election in Illinois</span> Election in Illinois

Republican candidate Herbert Hoover won the state of Illinois in the 1928 United States presidential election, and would emerge victorious from the overall election. State voters chose 29 representatives, or electors, to the Electoral College, who voted for president and vice president.

References

  1. Phillips, Kevin P.; The Emerging Republican Majority, pp. 341-344 ISBN   978-0-691-16324-6
  2. Wells, Damon; Stephen Douglas: The Last Years, 1857–1861, p. 285 ISBN   0292776357
  3. Copeland, James E.; ‘Where Were the Kentucky Unionists and Secessionists’; The Register of the Kentucky Historical Society, volume 71, no. 4 (October, 1973), pp. 344-363
  4. 1 2 "Presidential General Election Results Comparison – Illinois". Dave Leip’s U.S. Election Atlas.
  5. Schattschneider, Elmer Eric; The Semisovereign People: A Realist's View of Democracy in America, pp. 76-84 ISBN   0030133661
  6. Price, Harry N.; ‘Harding Back Home: Speaks to First Voters Today From His Front Porch’; The Washington Post , October 18, 1920, p. 1
  7. ‘Farm Vote Favors Harding: Farm Journal Poll Puts Cox Ahead, However, in Illinois and Indiana’; New York Times, October 22, 1920, p. 4
  8. ‘Harding 363 Votes, Cox 168, Is Result Obtained From Estimates by 47 Editors: Maryland, Kentucky, Oklahoma, Wyoming, Montana, Utah and Arizona, With Solid South, Are Only States Conceded to Democratic Candidate in Nation-Wide Canvass’; Washington Post, October 31, 1920, p. 1
  9. ‘Illinois for G.O.P. by Half a Million: Harding Gets 3 to 1 Vote Over Cox – Carries Cook County by 150,000’; Washington Post, November 3, 1920, p. 1
  10. Menendez, Albert J.; The Geography of Presidential Elections in the United States, 1868-2004, pp. 180-184 ISBN   0786422173
  11. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 "OFFICIAL VOTE OF THE STATE OF ILLINOIS CAST AT THE General Election, Nov. 2, 1920 Delegates to Constitutional Convention Questions of Public Policy, Nov, 4, 1919 Judicial Elections, 1919-1920 PRIMARY ELECTIONS General Primary, Sept, 15, 1920 Delegates to the Constitutional Convention, Sept. 10, 1919 Presidential Preference April 13, 1920" (PDF). Illinois State Board of Elections. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 17, 2021. Retrieved August 5, 2020.
  12. "Democratic National Convention, 1920". The New York Times . June 20, 1920.
  13. Illinois State Board of Elections; Official Vote of the State of Illinois Cast at the General Election November 2, 1920 (highest elector for each slate)
  14. ‘H.L. Ickes Deserts Harding as “Unfit”: Ex-Progressive Leader and Illinois Republican Delegate Comes Out for Cox’; New York Times , August 19, 1920, p. 11
  15. 1 2 ‘Cox Gives Leads for Fund Inquiry: Charges That the Republicans Fixed $80,000 Levy for Chicago Coal Dealers Last Summer’; New York Times, September 6, 1920, p. 1
  16. 1 2 ‘Harding Is Wabbler Cox Says in Attack: Declares Senator Presents the “Most Pitiable Spectacle” in Our Political History’; New York Times, October 13, 1920, p. 3
  17. "1916 Presidential Election Statistics". Dave Leip’s Atlas of U.S. Presidential Elections. Retrieved March 5, 2018.
  18. ‘Hull, Illinois Leader, Repudiates Harding: Former Congressman Announces His Support of Cox on League of Nations Issue’; New York Times, October 21, 1920, p. 1