Methylene blue

Last updated
Methylene blue
Methylene blue-2d-skeletal.svg
Molecular structure
Reflections in a flask of Methylene Blue.jpg
A volumetric flask of a methylene blue solution
Clinical data
Trade names Urelene blue, Provayblue, Proveblue, others [1] [2]
Other names CI 52015, basic blue 9 [3]
AHFS/Drugs.com Monograph
License data
Pregnancy
category
  • AU:D
Routes of
administration 		By mouth, intravenous
ATC code
Legal status
Legal status
Pharmacokinetic data
Elimination half-life 5 to 24 hours [6]
Identifiers
  • 3,7-bis(Dimethylamino)-phenothiazin-5-ium chloride
CAS Number
PubChem CID
DrugBank
ChemSpider
UNII
KEGG
ChEBI
ChEMBL
CompTox Dashboard (EPA)
ECHA InfoCard 100.000.469 OOjs UI icon edit-ltr-progressive.svg
Chemical and physical data
Formula C16H18ClN3S
Molar mass 319.85 g·mol−1
3D model (JSmol)
  • CN(C)c1ccc2c(c1)sc-3cc(=[N+](C)C)ccc3n2.[Cl-]
  • InChI=1S/C16H18N3S.ClH/c1-18(2)11-5-7-13-15(9-11)20-16-10-12(19(3)4)6-8-14(16)17-13;/h5-10H,1-4H3;1H/q+1;/p-1 Yes check.svgY
  • Key:CXKWCBBOMKCUKX-UHFFFAOYSA-M Yes check.svgY
   (verify)

Methylthioninium chloride, commonly called methylene blue, is a salt used as a dye and as a medication. As a medication, it is mainly used to treat methemoglobinemia by chemically reducing the ferric iron in hemoglobin to ferrous iron. [6] [2] Specifically, it is used to treat methemoglobin levels that are greater than 30% or in which there are symptoms despite oxygen therapy. [2] It has previously been used for treating cyanide poisoning and urinary tract infections, but this use is no longer recommended. [6]

Contents

Methylene blue is typically given by injection into a vein. [6] Common side effects include headache and vomiting. While use during pregnancy may harm the baby, not using it in methemoglobinemia is likely more dangerous. [6] [2]

Methylene blue was first prepared in 1876, by Heinrich Caro. [9] It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. [10]

Uses

Methemoglobinemia

Methylene blue is employed as a medication for the treatment of methemoglobinemia, which can arise from ingestion of certain pharmaceuticals, toxins, or broad beans in those susceptible. [11] Normally, through the NADH- or NADPH-dependent methemoglobin reductase enzymes, methemoglobin is reduced back to hemoglobin. When large amounts of methemoglobin occur secondary to toxins, methemoglobin reductases are overwhelmed. Methylene blue, when injected intravenously as an antidote, is itself first reduced to leucomethylene blue, which then reduces the heme group from methemoglobin to hemoglobin. Methylene blue can reduce the half life of methemoglobin from hours to minutes. [12] At high doses, however, methylene blue actually induces methemoglobinemia, reversing this pathway. [12]

Methylphen

This section is an excerpt from Hyoscyamine/hexamethylenetetramine/phenyl salicylate/methylene blue/benzoic acid.[ edit ]
Hyoscyamine/­hexamethylenetetramine/­phenyl salicylate/­methylene blue/­benzoic acid (trade names Methylphen, Prosed DS) is a discontinued drug combination. It was used to treat pain resulting from bladder infections. It is not safe or effective for any medical purpose. [13]

Cyanide poisoning

Since its reduction potential is similar to that of oxygen and can be reduced by components of the electron transport chain, large doses of methylene blue are sometimes used as an antidote to potassium cyanide poisoning, a method first successfully tested in 1933 by Dr. Matilda Moldenhauer Brooks in San Francisco, [14] although first demonstrated by Bo Sahlin of Lund University, in 1926. [14] [15]

Dye or stain

Human cheek cells stained with methylene blue Human Cheek Cells.jpg
Human cheek cells stained with methylene blue
Methylene blue crystals Methylene blue Crystals.jpg
Methylene blue crystals

Methylene blue is used in endoscopic polypectomy as an adjunct to saline or epinephrine, and is used for injection into the submucosa around the polyp to be removed. This allows the submucosal tissue plane to be identified after the polyp is removed, which is useful in determining if more tissue needs to be removed, or if there has been a high risk for perforation. Methylene blue is also used as a dye in chromoendoscopy, and is sprayed onto the mucosa of the gastrointestinal tract in order to identify dysplasia, or pre-cancerous lesions. Intravenously injected methylene blue is readily released into the urine and thus can be used to test the urinary tract for leaks or fistulas.[ citation needed ]

In surgeries such as sentinel lymph node dissections, methylene blue can be used to visually trace the lymphatic drainage of tested tissues. Similarly, methylene blue is added to bone cement in orthopedic operations to provide easy discrimination between native bone and cement. Additionally, methylene blue accelerates the hardening of bone cement, increasing the speed at which bone cement can be effectively applied. Methylene blue is used as an aid to visualisation/orientation in a number of medical devices, including a Surgical sealant film, TissuePatch. In fistulas and pilonidal sinuses it is used to identify the tract for complete excision.[ citation needed ] It can also be used during gastrointestinal surgeries (such as bowel resection or gastric bypass) to test for leaks.[ citation needed ]

It is sometimes used in cytopathology, in mixtures including Wright-Giemsa and Diff-Quik. It confers a blue color to both nuclei and cytoplasm, and makes the nuclei more visible. [16] When methylene blue is "polychromed" (oxidized in solution or "ripened" by fungal metabolism, [17] as originally noted in the thesis of Dr. D. L. Romanowsky in the 1890s), it gets serially demethylated and forms all the tri-, di-, mono- and non-methyl intermediates, which are Azure B, Azure A, Azure C, and thionine, respectively. [18] This is the basis of the basophilic part of the spectrum of Romanowski-Giemsa effect. If only synthetic Azure B and Eosin Y is used, it may serve as a standardized Giemsa stain; but, without methylene blue, the normal neutrophilic granules tend to overstain and look like toxic granules. On the other hand, if methylene blue is used it might help to give the normal look of neutrophil granules and may also enhance the staining of nucleoli and polychromatophilic RBCs (reticulocytes). [19]

A traditional application of methylene blue is the intravital or supravital staining of nerve fibers, an effect first described by Paul Ehrlich in 1887. [20] A dilute solution of the dye is either injected into tissue or applied to small freshly removed pieces. The selective blue coloration develops with exposure to air (oxygen) and can be fixed by immersion of the stained specimen in an aqueous solution of ammonium molybdate. Vital methylene blue was formerly much used for examining the innervation of muscle, skin and internal organs. [21] [22] [23] The mechanism of selective dye uptake is incompletely understood; vital staining of nerve fibers in skin is prevented by ouabain, a drug that inhibits the Na/K-ATPase of cell membranes. [24]

Placebo

Methylene blue has been used as a placebo; physicians would tell their patients to expect their urine to change color and view this as a sign that their condition had improved. [25] This same side effect makes methylene blue difficult to use in traditional placebo-controlled clinical studies, including those testing for its efficacy as a treatment. [26]

Isobutyl nitrite toxicity

Isobutyl nitrite is one of the compounds used as poppers, an inhalant drug that induces a brief euphoria.

Isobutyl nitrite is known to cause methemoglobinemia. [27] Severe methemoglobinemia may be treated with methylene blue. [28]

Gross pathology of a normal brain and a brain of a patient treated with methylene blue before death. Gross pathology of normal brain and brain of patient treated with methylene blue before death.jpg
Gross pathology of a normal brain and a brain of a patient treated with methylene blue before death.

Ifosfamide toxicity

Another use of methylene blue is to treat ifosfamide neurotoxicity. Methylene blue was first reported for treatment and prophylaxis of ifosfamide neuropsychiatric toxicity in 1994. A toxic metabolite of ifosfamide, chloroacetaldehyde (CAA), disrupts the mitochondrial respiratory chain, leading to an accumulation of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide hydrogen (NADH). Methylene blue acts as an alternative electron acceptor, and reverses the NADH inhibition of hepatic gluconeogenesis while also inhibiting the transformation of chloroethylamine into chloroacetaldehyde, and inhibits multiple amine oxidase activities, preventing the formation of CAA. [29] The dosing of methylene blue for treatment of ifosfamide neurotoxicity varies, depending upon its use simultaneously as an adjuvant in ifosfamide infusion, versus its use to reverse psychiatric symptoms that manifest after completion of an ifosfamide infusion. Reports suggest that methylene blue up to six doses a day have resulted in improvement of symptoms within 10 minutes to several days. [30] Alternatively, it has been suggested that intravenous methylene blue every six hours for prophylaxis during ifosfamide treatment in people with history of ifosfamide neuropsychiatric toxicity. [31] Prophylactic administration of methylene blue the day before initiation of ifosfamide, and three times daily during ifosfamide chemotherapy has been recommended to lower the occurrence of ifosfamide neurotoxicity. [32]

Shock

It has also been used in septic shock and anaphylaxis. [33] [34]

Methylene blue consistently increases blood pressure in people with vasoplegic syndrome (redistributive shock), but has not been shown to improve delivery of oxygen to tissues or to decrease mortality. [35] [36] [37] [38]

Methylene blue has been used in calcium channel blocker toxicity as a rescue therapy for distributive shock unresponsive to first line agents. Evidence for its use in this circumstance is very poor and limited to a handful of case reports. [39] [40] [41] [42] [43] [44] [45] [46] [47] [ excessive citations ]

Side effects

Cardiovascular [48] [49] Central Nervous System [48] [49] Dermatologic [48] [49] Gastrointestinal [48] [49] Genito-urinary [48] [49] Hematologic [48] [49]
• Hypertension
• Precordial pain 		• Dizziness
• Mental confusion
• Headache
• Fever 		• Staining of skin
• Injection site necrosis (SC)		• Fecal discoloration
• Nausea
• Vomiting
• Abdominal pain 		• Discoloration of urine (doses over 80 µg)
• Bladder irritation		• Anemia

Methylene blue is a monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI), [50] and if infused intravenously at doses exceeding 5 mg/kg, may precipitate serious serotonin toxicity, serotonin syndrome, if combined with any selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) or other serotonin reuptake inhibitor (e.g., duloxetine, sibutramine, venlafaxine, clomipramine, imipramine). [51]

It causes hemolytic anemia in carriers of the G6PD (favism) enzymatic deficiency. [52]

Chemistry

Methylene blue is a formal derivative of phenothiazine. It is a dark green powder that yields a blue solution in water. The hydrated form has 3 molecules of water per unit of methylene blue.

Preparation

This compound is prepared by oxidation of 4-aminodimethylaniline in the presence of sodium thiosulfate to give the quinonediiminothiosulfonic acid, reaction with dimethylaniline, oxidation to the indamine, and cyclization to give the thiazine: [53]

Synthesis of methylene blue.png

A green electrochemical procedure, using only dimethyl-4-phenylenediamine and sulfide ions has been proposed. [54]

Light absorption properties

Absorption spectrum of methylene blue, in terms of the molar extinction coefficient (base 10 logarithm). In this dataset a peak absorbance of 1.7 (i.e. 98% of transmitted light absorbed) was observed with 665 nm light passing through 1 cm of 10 micromolar methylene blue solution. Methylene blue absorption spectrum.png
Absorption spectrum of methylene blue, in terms of the molar extinction coefficient (base 10 logarithm). In this dataset a peak absorbance of 1.7 (i.e. 98% of transmitted light absorbed) was observed with 665 nm light passing through 1 cm of 10 micromolar methylene blue solution.

The maximum absorption of light is near 670 nm. The specifics of absorption depend on a number of factors, including protonation, adsorption to other materials, and metachromasy - the formation of dimers and higher-order aggregates depending on concentration and other interactions: [55]

SpeciesAbsorption peakExtinction coefficient (dm3/mole·cm)
MB+ (solution)66495000
MBH2+ (solution)74176000
(MB+)2 (solution)605132000
(MB+)3 (solution)580110000
MB+ (adsorbed on clay)673116000
MBH2+ (adsorbed on clay)76386000
(MB+)2 (adsorbed on clay)59680000
(MB+)3 (adsorbed on clay)570114000

Other uses

Redox indicator

Methylene blue is widely used as a redox indicator in analytical chemistry. [56] [57] [58] Solutions of this substance are blue when in an oxidizing environment, but will turn colorless if exposed to a reducing agent. [59] [57] The redox properties can be seen in a classical demonstration of chemical kinetics in general chemistry, the "blue bottle" experiment. Typically, a solution is made of glucose (dextrose), methylene blue, and sodium hydroxide. Upon shaking the bottle, oxygen oxidizes methylene blue, and the solution turns blue. The dextrose will gradually reduce the methylene blue to its colorless, reduced form. Hence, when the dissolved dextrose is entirely consumed, the solution will turn blue again. The redox midpoint potential E0' is +0.01 V. [60]

Peroxide generator

Methylene blue is also a photosensitizer used to create singlet oxygen when exposed to both oxygen and light. It is used in this regard to make organic peroxides by a Diels-Alder reaction which is spin forbidden with normal atmospheric triplet oxygen.[ citation needed ]

Sulfide analysis

The formation of methylene blue after the reaction of hydrogen sulfide with dimethyl-p-phenylenediamine and iron(III) at pH 0.4 – 0.7 is used to determine by photometric measurements sulfide concentration in the range 0.020 to 1.50 mg/L (20 ppb to 1.5 ppm). [61] The test is very sensitive and the blue coloration developing upon contact of the reagents with dissolved H2S is stable for 60 min. Ready-to-use kits such as the Spectroquant sulfide test [62] facilitate routine analyses. The methylene blue sulfide test is a convenient method often used in soil microbiology to quickly detect in water the metabolic activity of sulfate reducing bacteria (SRB). It must be noted that in this colorimetric test, methylene blue is a product formed by the reaction and not a reagent added to the system. [61]

The addition of a strong reducing agent, such as ascorbic acid, to a sulfide-containing solution is sometimes used to prevent sulfide oxidation from atmospheric oxygen. Although it is certainly a sound precaution for the determination of sulfide with an ion selective electrode, it might however hamper the development of the blue color if the freshly formed methylene blue is also reduced, as described here above in the paragraph on redox indicator. [57]

Test for milk freshness

Methylene blue is a dye behaving as a redox indicator that is commonly used in the food industry to test the freshness of milk and dairy products. [6] [63] A few drops of methylene blue solution added to a sample of milk should remain blue (oxidized form in the presence of enough dissolved O2), otherwise (discoloration caused by the reduction of methylene blue into its colorless reduced form) the dissolved O2 concentration in the milk sample is low indicating that the milk is not fresh (already abiotically oxidized by O2 whose concentration in solution decreases) or could be contaminated by bacteria also consuming the atmospheric O2 dissolved in the milk. [63] In other words, aerobic conditions should prevail in fresh milk and methylene blue is simply used as an indicator of the dissolved oxygen remaining in the milk. [59]

Water testing

The adsorption of methylene blue serves as an indicator defining the adsorptive capacity of granular activated carbon in water filters. Adsorption of methylene blue is very similar to adsorption of pesticides from water, this quality makes methylene blue serve as a good predictor for filtration qualities of carbon. It is as well a quick method of comparing different batches of activated carbon of the same quality. A color reaction in an acidified, aqueous methylene blue solution containing chloroform can detect anionic surfactants in a water sample. Such a test is known as an MBAS assay (methylene blue active substances assay).

The MBAS assay cannot distinguish between specific surfactants, however. Some examples of anionic surfactants are carboxylates, phosphates, sulfates, and sulfonates.[ citation needed ]

Methylene blue value of fine aggregate

The methylene blue value is defined as the number of milliliter's standard methylene value solution decolorized 0.1 g of activated carbon (dry basis). [64] Methylene blue value reflects the amount of clay minerals in aggregate samples. [65] In materials science, methylene blue solution is successively added to fine aggregate which is being agitated in water. The presence of free dye solution can be checked with stain test on a filter paper. [66]

Biological staining

In biology, methylene blue is used as a dye for a number of different staining procedures, such as Wright's stain and Jenner's stain. Since it is a temporary staining technique, methylene blue can also be used to examine RNA or DNA under the microscope or in a gel: as an example, a solution of methylene blue can be used to stain RNA on hybridization membranes in northern blotting to verify the amount of nucleic acid present. While methylene blue is not as sensitive as ethidium bromide, it is less toxic and it does not intercalate in nucleic acid chains, thus avoiding interference with nucleic acid retention on hybridization membranes or with the hybridization process itself.[ citation needed ]

It can also be used as an indicator to determine whether eukaryotic cells such as yeast are alive or dead. The methylene blue is reduced in viable cells, leaving them unstained. However dead cells are unable to reduce the oxidized methylene blue and the cells are stained blue. Methylene blue can interfere with the respiration of the yeast as it picks up hydrogen ions made during the process.[ citation needed ]

Aquaculture

Methylene blue is used in aquaculture and by tropical fish hobbyists as a treatment for fungal infections. It can also be effective in treating fish infected with ich although a combination of malachite green and formaldehyde is far more effective against the parasitic protozoa Ichthyophthirius multifiliis . It is usually used to protect newly laid fish eggs from being infected by fungus or bacteria. This is useful when the hobbyist wants to artificially hatch the fish eggs. Methylene blue is also very effective when used as part of a "medicated fish bath" for treatment of ammonia, nitrite, and cyanide poisoning as well as for topical and internal treatment of injured or sick fish as a "first response". [67]

History

Methylene blue has been described as "the first fully synthetic drug used in medicine." Methylene blue was first prepared in 1876 by German chemist Heinrich Caro. [68]

Its use in the treatment of malaria was pioneered by Paul Guttmann and Paul Ehrlich in 1891. During this period before the first World War, researchers like Ehrlich believed that drugs and dyes worked in the same way, by preferentially staining pathogens and possibly harming them. Changing the cell membrane of pathogens is in fact how various drugs work, so the theory was partially correct although far from complete. Methylene blue continued to be used in the second World War, where it was not well liked by soldiers, who observed, "Even at the loo, we see, we pee, navy blue." Antimalarial use of the drug has recently been revived. [69] It was discovered to be an antidote to carbon monoxide poisoning and cyanide poisoning in 1933 by Matilda Brooks. [70]

The blue urine was used to monitor psychiatric patients' compliance with medication regimes. This led to interest - from the 1890s to the present day - in the drug's antidepressant and other psychotropic effects. It became the lead compound in research leading to the discovery of chlorpromazine. [71]

Names

The International Nonproprietary Name (INN) of methylene blue is methylthioninium chloride. [72] [73]

Research

Malaria

Methylene blue was identified by Paul Ehrlich about 1891 as a possible treatment for malaria. [74] It disappeared as an anti-malarial during the Pacific War in the tropics, since American and Allied soldiers disliked its two prominent, but reversible side effects: turning the urine blue or green, and the sclera (the whites of the eyes) blue. Interest in its use as an anti-malarial has recently been revived, [71] especially due to its low price. Several clinical trials are in progress, trying to find a suitable drug combination. According to studies on children in Africa, it appears to have efficacy against malaria, but the attempts to combine methylene blue with chloroquine were disappointing. [75]

Alzheimer's

A Phase 3 clinical trial of LMTM (TauRx0237 or LMT-X), a derivative of methylene blue, failed to show any benefit against cognitive or functional decline in people with mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease. Disease progression for both the drug and the placebo were practically identical. [76] [77]

Bipolar disorder

Methylene blue has been studied as an adjunctive medication in the treatment of bipolar disorder. [78]

Infectious diseases

It has been studied in AIDS-related Kaposi's sarcoma, [79] West Nile virus, [80] and to inactivate Staphylococcus aureus , [81] and HIV-1. [82] Phenothiazine dyes and light have been known to have virucidal properties for over 70 years. [83]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Amyl nitrite</span> Chemical compound

Amyl nitrite is a chemical compound with the formula C5H11ONO. A variety of isomers are known, but they all feature an amyl group attached to the nitrite functional group. The alkyl group is unreactive and the chemical and biological properties are mainly due to the nitrite group. Like other alkyl nitrites, amyl nitrite is bioactive in mammals, being a vasodilator, which is the basis of its use as a prescription medicine. As an inhalant, it also has a psychoactive effect, which has led to its recreational use, with its smell being described as that of old socks or dirty feet. It was first documented in 1844 and came into medical use in 1867.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nitrate</span> Polyatomic ion (NO₃, charge –1) found in explosives and fertilisers

Nitrate is a polyatomic ion with the chemical formula NO−
3. Salts containing this ion are called nitrates. Nitrates are common components of fertilizers and explosives. Almost all inorganic nitrates are soluble in water. An example of an insoluble nitrate is bismuth oxynitrate.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Paracetamol</span> Common medication for pain and fever

Paracetamol (acetaminophen) is a non-opioid analgesic and antipyretic agent used to treat fever and mild to moderate pain. It is a widely used over the counter medication. Common brand names include Tylenol and Panadol.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Romanowsky stain</span> Family of related stains for examination of blood including the detection of parasites

Romanowsky staining is a prototypical staining technique that was the forerunner of several distinct but similar stains widely used in hematology and cytopathology. Romanowsky-type stains are used to differentiate cells for microscopic examination in pathological specimens, especially blood and bone marrow films, and to detect parasites such as malaria within the blood.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Methemoglobinemia</span> Condition of elevated methemoglobin in the blood

Methemoglobinemia, or methaemoglobinaemia, is a condition of elevated methemoglobin in the blood. Symptoms may include headache, dizziness, shortness of breath, nausea, poor muscle coordination, and blue-colored skin (cyanosis). Complications may include seizures and heart arrhythmias.

The nitrite ion has the chemical formula NO−
2. Nitrite is widely used throughout chemical and pharmaceutical industries. The nitrite anion is a pervasive intermediate in the nitrogen cycle in nature. The name nitrite also refers to organic compounds having the –ONO group, which are esters of nitrous acid.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cyanosis</span> Decreased oxygen in the blood

Cyanosis is the change of body tissue color to a bluish-purple hue, as a result of decrease in the amount of oxygen bound to the hemoglobin in the red blood cells of the capillary bed. Cyanosis is apparent usually in the body tissues covered with thin skin, including the mucous membranes, lips, nail beds, and ear lobes. Some medications may cause discoloration such as medications containing amiodarone or silver. Furthermore, mongolian spots, large birthmarks, and the consumption of food products with blue or purple dyes can also result in the bluish skin tissue discoloration and may be mistaken for cyanosis. Appropriate physical examination and history taking is a crucial part to diagnose cyanosis. Management of cyanosis involves treating the main cause, as cyanosis isn’t a disease, it is a symptom.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sodium nitrite</span> Chemical compound

Sodium nitrite is an inorganic compound with the chemical formula NaNO2. It is a white to slightly yellowish crystalline powder that is very soluble in water and is hygroscopic. From an industrial perspective, it is the most important nitrite salt. It is a precursor to a variety of organic compounds, such as pharmaceuticals, dyes, and pesticides, but it is probably best known as a food additive used in processed meats and (in some countries) in fish products.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Blue baby syndrome</span> Two situations that lead to cyanosis in infants

Blue baby syndrome can refer to conditions that cause cyanosis, or blueness of the skin, in babies as a result of low oxygen levels in the blood. This term has traditionally been applied to cyanosis as a result of:.

  1. Cyanotic heart disease, which is a category of congenital heart defect that results in low levels of oxygen in the blood. This can be caused by either reduced blood flow to the lungs or mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.
  2. Methemoglobinemia, which is a disease defined by high levels of methemoglobin in the blood. Increased levels of methemoglobin prevent oxygen from being released into the tissues and result in hypoxemia.
<span class="mw-page-title-main">Methemoglobin</span> Type of hemoglobin

Methemoglobin (British: methaemoglobin, shortened MetHb) (pronounced "met-hemoglobin") is a hemoglobin in the form of metalloprotein, in which the iron in the heme group is in the Fe3+ (ferric) state, not the Fe2+ (ferrous) of normal hemoglobin. Sometimes, it is also referred to as ferrihemoglobin. Methemoglobin cannot bind oxygen, which means it cannot carry oxygen to tissues. It is bluish chocolate-brown in color. In human blood a trace amount of methemoglobin is normally produced spontaneously, but when present in excess the blood becomes abnormally dark bluish brown. The NADH-dependent enzyme methemoglobin reductase (a type of diaphorase) is responsible for converting methemoglobin back to hemoglobin.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sodium thiosulfate</span> Chemical compound

Sodium thiosulfate is an inorganic compound with the formula Na2S2O3·(H2O)(x). Typically it is available as the white or colorless pentahydrate. It is a white solid that dissolves well in water. The compound is a reducing agent and a ligand, and these properties underpin its applications.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Crystal violet</span> Triarylmethane dye used as a histological stain and in Grams method of classifying bacteria

Crystal violet or gentian violet, also known as methyl violet 10B or hexamethyl pararosaniline chloride, is a triarylmethane dye used as a histological stain and in Gram's method of classifying bacteria. Crystal violet has antibacterial, antifungal, and anthelmintic (vermicide) properties and was formerly important as a topical antiseptic. The medical use of the dye has been largely superseded by more modern drugs, although it is still listed by the World Health Organization.

Poppers is a slang term referring to recreational drugs belonging to the alkyl nitrite family of chemical compounds. When fumes from these substances are inhaled, they act as potent vasodilators, producing mild euphoria, warmth, and dizziness. Most effects have a rapid onset and are short-acting. Its recreational use is believed to be potentially dangerous for people with heart problems, anaemia and glaucoma. Reported adverse effects include fainting, retinal toxicity and vision loss.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rose bengal</span> Tetrachloro-tetraiodo-fluorescein used as stain

Rose bengal (4,5,6,7-tetrachloro-2',4',5',7'-tetraiodofluorescein) is a stain. Rose bengal belongs to the class of organic compounds called xanthenes. Its sodium salt is commonly used in eye drops to stain damaged conjunctival and corneal cells and thereby identify damage to the eye. The stain is also used in the preparation of Foraminifera for microscopic analysis, allowing the distinction between forms that were alive or dead at the time of collection.

4-Dimethylaminophenol (DMAP) is an aromatic compound containing both phenol and amine functional groups. It has the molecular formula C8H11NO.

Sulfhemoglobinemia is a rare condition in which there is excess sulfhemoglobin (SulfHb) in the blood. The pigment is a greenish derivative of hemoglobin which cannot be converted back to normal, functional hemoglobin. It causes cyanosis even at low blood levels.

Chromopertubation is a method for the study of fallopian tube patency for suspected infertility in women caused by fallopian tube obstruction. Occlusion or pathology of the fallopian tubes is the most common cause of suspected infertility. Chromopertubation is sometimes commonly referred to a "laparoscopy and dye" test. It is currently one of the standard procedures in this field. In most cases, chromopertubation is performed to assess and determine the cause of someone's difficulties in getting pregnant.

Naphthalene poisoning is a form of poisoning that occurs when naphthalene is ingested. Severe poisoning can result in haemolytic anaemia. Naphthalene was introduced in 1841 by Rossbach as an antiseptic to counteract typhoid fever. Although naphthalene was widely used industrially, only nine cases of poisoning have been reported since 1947 as of 1956, suggesting underdiagnosis of the condition. As a result, the condition has limited coverage within medical journals.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hemoglobin M disease</span> Medical condition

Hemoglobin M disease is a rare form of hemoglobinopathy, characterized by the presence of hemoglobin M (HbM) and elevated methemoglobin (metHb) level in blood. HbM is an altered form of hemoglobin (Hb) due to point mutation occurring in globin-encoding genes, mostly involving tyrosine substitution for proximal (F8) or distal (E7) histidine residues. HbM variants are inherited as autosomal dominant disorders and have altered oxygen affinity. The pathophysiology of hemoglobin M disease involves heme iron autoxidation promoted by heme pocket structural alteration.

References

  1. ↑ Hamilton R (2015). Tarascon Pocket Pharmacopoeia 2015 Deluxe Lab-Coat Edition. Jones & Bartlett Learning. p. 471. ISBN   9781284057560.
  2. 1 2 3 4 British national formulary : BNF 69 (69 ed.). British Medical Association. 2015. p. 34. ISBN   9780857111562.
  3. ↑ Lillie RD (1977). H. J. Conn's Biological stains (9th ed.). Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins. pp. 692p.
  4. ↑ "FDA-sourced list of all drugs with black box warnings (Use Download Full Results and View Query links.)". nctr-crs.fda.gov. FDA . Retrieved 22 Oct 2023.
  5. ↑ "Provayblue- methylene blue injection". DailyMed. 29 June 2022. Retrieved 4 March 2023.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 "Methylene Blue". The American Society of Health-System Pharmacists. Archived from the original on 10 May 2017. Retrieved 8 January 2017.
  7. ↑ "Lumeblue EPAR". European Medicines Agency. 19 June 2020. Retrieved 4 March 2023.
  8. ↑ "Lumeblue Product information". Union Register of medicinal products. Retrieved 3 March 2023.
  9. ↑ Ahmad I, Aqil F (2008). New Strategies Combating Bacterial Infection. John Wiley & Sons. p. 91. ISBN   9783527622948. Archived from the original on 2017-09-18.
  10. ↑ World Health Organization (2019). World Health Organization model list of essential medicines: 21st list 2019. Geneva: World Health Organization. hdl:10665/325771. WHO/MVP/EMP/IAU/2019.06. License: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO.
  11. ↑ Thomé SD, Petz LD (2002). "Hemolytic Anemia: Hereditary and Acquired". In Mazza J (ed.). Manual of Clinical Hematology (3rd ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 102. ISBN   978-0-7817-2980-2.
  12. 1 2 Brent J. (2005). Critical care toxicology: diagnosis and management of the critically poisoned patient. Elsevier Health Sciences.
  13. ↑ "Prosed/DS: Indications, Side Effects, Warnings". Drugs.com. Retrieved 2024-04-20.
  14. 1 2 Brooks MM (1936). "Methylene blue as an antidote for cyanide and carbon monoxide poisoning". The Scientific Monthly. 43 (6): 585–586. Bibcode:1936SciMo..43..585M. JSTOR   16280.
  15. ↑ Hanzlik PJ (4 February 1933). "Methylene Blue As Antidote for Cyanide Poisoning". JAMA. 100 (5): 357. doi:10.1001/jama.1933.02740050053028.
  16. ↑ Hu X, Laguerre V, Packert D, Nakasone A, Moscinski L (2015). "A Simple and Efficient Method for Preparing Cell Slides and Staining without Using Cytocentrifuge and Cytoclips". International Journal of Cell Biology. 2015: 813216. doi: 10.1155/2015/813216 . PMC   4664808 . PMID   26664363.
  17. ↑ Kiernan JA (2010). "Chapter 19: On Chemical Reactions and Staining Mechanisms" (PDF). In Kumar GL, Kiernan JA (eds.). Special Stains and H & E. Education Guide (Second ed.). Carpinteria, California: Dako North America, Inc. p. 172. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 13, 2012. What is Giemsa's stain and how does it color blood cells, bacteria and chromosomes?
  18. ↑ Wilson TM (November 1907). "On the Chemistry and Staining Properties of Certain Derivatives of the Methylene Blue Group When Combined With Eosin". The Journal of Experimental Medicine. 9 (6): 645–670. doi:10.1084/jem.9.6.645. PMC   2124692 . PMID   19867116.
  19. ↑ Lewis SM, Bain BK, Bates I, Dacie JV (2006). Dacie and Lewis practical haematology (10th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier. p. 61. ISBN   978-0-443-06660-3.
  20. ↑ Ehrlich P (1887). "Ueber die Methylenblau Reaktion der lebenden Nerven Substanz" [About the methylene blue reaction of the living nerve substance.](PDF). Biologisches Zentralblatt[Biological Central Journal] (in German). 6: 214–224. cited by Baker JR (1958). Principles of biological microtechnique. A study of fixation and dyeing. London: Methuen.
  21. ↑ Wilson JG (July 1910). "Intra vitam staining with methylene blue". The Anatomical Record. 4 (7): 267–277. doi:10.1002/ar.1090040705. S2CID   86242668.
  22. ↑ Schabadasch A (January 1930). "Untersuchungen zur Methodik der Methylenblaufärbung des vegetativen Nervensystems" [Investigations on the methodology of methylene blue staining of the autonomic nervous system.]. Zeitschrift für Zellforschung und Mikroskopische Anatomie[Journal of Cell Research and Microscopic Anatomy] (in German). 10 (2): 221–243. doi:10.1007/BF02450696. S2CID   36940327.
  23. ↑ Zacks SI (1973). The Motor Endplate (2nd ed.). Huntington, NY: Krieger.
  24. ↑ Kiernan JA (June 1974). "Effects of metabolic inhibitors on vital staining with methylene blue". Histochemistry. 40 (1): 51–7. doi:10.1007/BF00490273. PMID   4136702. S2CID   23158612.
  25. ↑ Novella S (23 January 2008). "The ethics of deception in medicine". Science Based Medicine. Archived from the original on 2008-01-29. Retrieved 2008-01-24.
  26. ↑ Clinical trial number NCT00214877 for "Methylene blue for cognitive dysfunction in bipolar disorder" at ClinicalTrials.gov
  27. ↑ Taylor GM, Avera RS, Strachan CC, Briggs CM, Medler JP, Pafford CM, Gant TB (February 2021). "Severe methemoglobinemia secondary to isobutyl nitrite toxicity: the case of the 'Gold Rush'". Oxford Medical Case Reports. 2021 (2): omaa136. doi:10.1093/omcr/omaa136. PMC   7885148 . PMID   33614047.
  28. ↑ Modarai B, Kapadia YK, Kerins M, Terris J (May 2002). "Methylene blue: a treatment for severe methaemoglobinaemia secondary to misuse of amyl nitrite". Emergency Medicine Journal. 19 (3): 270–271. doi:10.1136/emj.19.3.270. PMC   1725875 . PMID   11971852.
  29. ↑ Alici-Evcimen Y, Breitbart WS (October 2007). "Ifosfamide neuropsychiatric toxicity in patients with cancer". Psycho-Oncology. 16 (10): 956–960. doi: 10.1002/pon.1161 . PMID   17278152. S2CID   27433170.
  30. ↑ Patel PN (February 2006). "Methylene blue for management of Ifosfamide-induced encephalopathy". The Annals of Pharmacotherapy. 40 (2): 299–303. doi:10.1345/aph.1G114. PMID   16391008. S2CID   21124635.
  31. ↑ Dufour C, Grill J, Sabouraud P, Behar C, Munzer M, Motte J, et al. (February 2006). "[Ifosfamide induced encephalopathy: 15 observations]". Archives de Pédiatrie (in French). 13 (2): 140–145. doi:10.1016/j.arcped.2005.10.021. PMID   16364615.
  32. ↑ Aeschlimann C, Cerny T, Küpfer A (December 1996). "Inhibition of (mono)amine oxidase activity and prevention of ifosfamide encephalopathy by methylene blue". Drug Metabolism and Disposition. 24 (12): 1336–1339. PMID   8971139.
  33. ↑ Jang DH, Nelson LS, Hoffman RS (September 2013). "Methylene blue for distributive shock: a potential new use of an old antidote". Journal of Medical Toxicology. 9 (3): 242–249. doi:10.1007/s13181-013-0298-7. PMC   3770994 . PMID   23580172.
  34. ↑ Paciullo CA, McMahon Horner D, Hatton KW, Flynn JD (July 2010). "Methylene blue for the treatment of septic shock". Pharmacotherapy. 30 (7): 702–715. doi:10.1592/phco.30.7.702. PMID   20575634. S2CID   759538.
  35. ↑ Hosseinian L, Weiner M, Levin MA, Fischer GW (January 2016). "Methylene Blue: Magic Bullet for Vasoplegia?". Anesthesia and Analgesia. 122 (1): 194–201. doi:10.1213/ANE.0000000000001045. PMID   26678471. S2CID   26114442.
  36. ↑ Levin RL, Degrange MA, Bruno GF, Del Mazo CD, Taborda DJ, Griotti JJ, Boullon FJ (February 2004). "Methylene blue reduces mortality and morbidity in vasoplegic patients after cardiac surgery". The Annals of Thoracic Surgery. 77 (2): 496–499. doi:10.1016/S0003-4975(03)01510-8. PMID   14759425.
  37. ↑ Leite EG, Ronald A, Rodrigues AJ, Evora PR (December 2006). "Is methylene blue of benefit in treating adult patients who develop catecholamine-resistant vasoplegic syndrome during cardiac surgery?". Interactive Cardiovascular and Thoracic Surgery. 5 (6): 774–8. doi:10.1510/icvts.2006.134726. PMID   17670710. S2CID   30259038.
  38. ↑ Stawicki SP, Sims C, Sarani B, Grossman MD, Gracias VH (May 2008). "Methylene blue and vasoplegia: who, when, and how?". Mini Reviews in Medicinal Chemistry. 8 (5): 472–490. doi:10.2174/138955708784223477. PMID   18473936. Archived from the original on 2017-09-18. Retrieved 2020-04-01.
  39. ↑ Fadhlillah F, Patil S (August 2018). "Pharmacological and mechanical management of calcium channel blocker toxicity". BMJ Case Reports. 2018: bcr2018225324. doi:10.1136/bcr-2018-225324. PMC   6119390 . PMID   30150339.
  40. ↑ Saha BK, Bonnier A, Chong W (December 2020). "Rapid reversal of vasoplegia with methylene blue in calcium channel blocker poisoning". African Journal of Emergency Medicine. 10 (4): 284–287. doi:10.1016/j.afjem.2020.06.014. PMC   7700985 . PMID   33299766.
  41. ↑ Aggarwal N, Kupfer Y, Seneviratne C, Tessler S (January 2013). "Methylene blue reverses recalcitrant shock in β-blocker and calcium channel blocker overdose". BMJ Case Reports. 2013: bcr2012007402. doi:10.1136/bcr-2012-007402. PMC   3604019 . PMID   23334490.
  42. ↑ Pellegrini JR, Munshi R, Tiwana MS, Abraham T, Tahir H, Sayedy N, Iqbal J (October 2021). ""Feeling the Blues": A Case of Calcium Channel Blocker Overdose Managed With Methylene Blue". Cureus. 13 (10): e19114. doi: 10.7759/cureus.19114 . PMC   8627593 . PMID   34868762.
  43. ↑ Ahmed S, Barnes S (2019). "Hemodynamic improvement using methylene blue after calcium channel blocker overdose". World Journal of Emergency Medicine. 10 (1): 55–58. doi:10.5847/wjem.j.1920-8642.2019.01.009. PMC   6264975 . PMID   30598720.
  44. ↑ Burkes R, Wendorf G (July 2015). "A multifaceted approach to calcium channel blocker overdose: a case report and literature review". Clinical Case Reports. 3 (7): 566–569. doi:10.1002/ccr3.300. PMC   4527798 . PMID   26273444.
  45. ↑ Chudow M, Ferguson K (April 2018). "A Case of Severe, Refractory Hypotension After Amlodipine Overdose". Cardiovascular Toxicology. 18 (2): 192–197. doi:10.1007/s12012-017-9419-x. PMID   28688059. S2CID   3713149.
  46. ↑ Jang DH, Nelson LS, Hoffman RS (December 2011). "Methylene blue in the treatment of refractory shock from an amlodipine overdose". Annals of Emergency Medicine. 58 (6): 565–567. doi:10.1016/j.annemergmed.2011.02.025. PMID   21546119.
  47. ↑ Laes JR, Williams DM, Cole JB (December 2015). "Improvement in Hemodynamics After Methylene Blue Administration in Drug-Induced Vasodilatory Shock: A Case Report". Journal of Medical Toxicology. 11 (4): 460–463. doi:10.1007/s13181-015-0500-1. PMC   4675606 . PMID   26310944.
  48. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Mokhlesi B, Leikin JB, Murray P, Corbridge TC (March 2003). "Adult toxicology in critical care: Part II: specific poisonings". Chest. 123 (3): 897–922. doi:10.1378/chest.123.3.897. PMID   12628894. S2CID   9962335.
  49. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Harvey JW, Keitt AS (May 1983). "Studies of the efficacy and potential hazards of methylene blue therapy in aniline-induced methaemoglobinaemia". British Journal of Haematology. 54 (1): 29–41. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2141.1983.tb02064.x. PMID   6849836. S2CID   19304915.
  50. ↑ Ramsay RR, Dunford C, Gillman PK (November 2007). "Methylene blue and serotonin toxicity: inhibition of monoamine oxidase A (MAO A) confirms a theoretical prediction". British Journal of Pharmacology. 152 (6): 946–951. doi:10.1038/sj.bjp.0707430. PMC   2078225 . PMID   17721552.
  51. ↑ Gillman PK (October 2006). "Methylene blue implicated in potentially fatal serotonin toxicity". Anaesthesia. 61 (10): 1013–1014. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2044.2006.04808.x. PMID   16978328. S2CID   45063314.
  52. ↑ Rosen PJ, Johnson C, McGehee WG, Beutler E (July 1971). "Failure of methylene blue treatment in toxic methemoglobinemia. Association with glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency". Annals of Internal Medicine. 75 (1): 83–86. doi:10.7326/0003-4819-75-1-83. PMID   5091568.
  53. ↑ Berneth H (2012). "Azine Dyes". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. doi:10.1002/14356007.a03_213.pub3. ISBN   978-3527306732.
  54. ↑ Maleki A, Nematollahi D (December 2009). "An efficient electrochemical method for the synthesis of methylene blue". Electrochemistry Communications. 11 (12): 2261–2264. doi:10.1016/j.elecom.2009.09.040.
  55. ↑ Cenens J, Schoonheydt RA (1988). "Visible spectroscopy of methylene blue on hectorite, laponite B, and barasym in aqueous suspension". Clays and Clay Minerals. 36 (3): 214–224. Bibcode:1988CCM....36..214C. doi:10.1346/ccmn.1988.0360302. S2CID   3851037.
  56. ↑ Cook AG, Tolliver RM, Williams JE (February 1994). "The Blue Bottle experiment revisited: How Blue? How Sweet?". Journal of Chemical Education. 71 (2): 160. Bibcode:1994JChEd..71..160C. doi:10.1021/ed071p160.
  57. 1 2 3 Anderson L, Wittkopp SM, Painter CJ, Liegel JJ, Schreiner R, Bell JA, Shakhashiri BZ (9 October 2012). "What is happening when the Blue Bottle bleaches: An Investigation of the methylene blue-catalyzed air oxidation of glucose". Journal of Chemical Education. 89 (11): 1425–1431. Bibcode:2012JChEd..89.1425A. doi:10.1021/ed200511d.
  58. ↑ Rajchakit U, Limpanuparb T (9 August 2016). "Rapid Blue Bottle experiment: Autoxidation of benzoin catalyzed by redox indicators". Journal of Chemical Education. 93 (8): 1490–1494. Bibcode:2016JChEd..93.1490R. doi:10.1021/acs.jchemed.6b00018.
  59. 1 2 Harvey EN (March 1919). "The relation between the oxygen concentration and rate of reduction of methylene blue by milk". The Journal of General Physiology. 1 (4): 415–419. doi:10.1085/jgp.1.4.415. PMC   2140316 . PMID   19871757.
  60. ↑ Jakubowski H (2016). "Chapter 8: Oxidation/Phosphorylation B: Oxidative Enzymes". Biochemistry Online.
  61. 1 2 Siegel Lewis M (1965-04-01). "A direct microdetermination for sulfide". Analytical Biochemistry. 11 (1): 126–132. doi:10.1016/0003-2697(65)90051-5. ISSN   0003-2697. PMID   14328633.
  62. ↑ "Analytik und Probenvorbereitung". Darmstadt, Germany: Merck KGaA. Archived from the original on 2007-03-15.
  63. 1 2 Thornton H (May 1930). "Studies on Oxidation-Reduction in Milk: The Methylene Blue Reduction Test". Journal of Dairy Science. 13 (3). Elsevier Inc.: 221–245. doi: 10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(30)93520-5 .
  64. ↑ "Test Methods for Activated Carbon" (PDF). European Council of Chemical Manufacturers' Federations. April 1986.
  65. ↑ Standard Test Method for Rapid Determination of the Methylene Blue Value for Fine Aggregate or Mineral Filler Using a Colorimeter (Report). West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM (American Society for Testing and Material) International. 7 July 2020. doi:10.1520/C1777-20. ASTM C1777. Archived from the original on 2014-02-28.
  66. ↑ Standing Committee on Concrete Technology (SCCT) (May 2013). "Construction Standard CS3:2013 – Aggregates for Concrete" (PDF). The Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region.
  67. ↑ "Methylene Blue". 3 Little Fish Sdn Bhd. Kelana Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia. 10 September 2021.
  68. ↑ Heinrich Caro was an employee of the Badische Anilin- und Sodafabrik, BASF, of Mannheim, Germany, which received a patent for methylene blue in 1877:
    • Badische Anilin- und Sodafabrik, BASF, of Mannheim, Germany, "Verfahren zur Darstellung blauer Farbstoffe aus Dimethylanilin und anderen tertiaren aromatischen Monaminen" [Method for preparation of blue dyes from dimethylaniline and other tertiary aromatic monoamines], Deutsches Reich Patent no. 1886 (issued: December 15, 1877).
    • Available on-line at: Friedlaender P (1888). Fortschritte der Theerfarbenfabrikation und verwandter Industriezweige [Progress of the manufacture of coal-tar dyes and related branches of industry] (in German). Vol. 1. Berlin, Germany: Julius Springer. pp. 247–249. Archived from the original on 2015-03-21. Retrieved 2016-10-12.
  69. ↑ Coulibaly B, Zoungrana A, Mockenhaupt FP, Schirmer RH, Klose C, Mansmann U, et al. (2009). "Strong gametocytocidal effect of methylene blue-based combination therapy against falciparum malaria: a randomised controlled trial". PLOS ONE. 4 (5): e5318. Bibcode:2009PLoSO...4.5318C. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0005318 . PMC   2673582 . PMID   19415120.
  70. ↑ Brooks MM (January 1933). "Methylene Blue As Antidote for Cyanide and Carbon Monoxide Poisoning". JAMA. 100: 59. doi:10.1001/jama.1933.02740010061028.
  71. 1 2 Schirmer RH, Coulibaly B, Stich A, Scheiwein M, Merkle H, Eubel J, et al. (2003). "Methylene blue as an antimalarial agent". Redox Report. 8 (5): 272–275. doi:10.1179/135100003225002899. PMID   14962363. S2CID   24345784.
  72. ↑ Adams V, Marley J, McCarroll C (November 2007). "Prilocaine induced methaemoglobinaemia in a medically compromised patient. Was this an inevitable consequence of the dose administered?". British Dental Journal. 203 (10): 585–587. doi: 10.1038/bdj.2007.1045 . PMID   18037845.
  73. ↑ Linz AJ, Greenham RK, Fallon LF (May 2006). "Methemoglobinemia: an industrial outbreak among rubber molding workers". Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine. 48 (5): 523–528. doi:10.1097/01.jom.0000201815.32098.99. PMID   16688009. S2CID   29264161.
  74. ↑ Ehrlich P, Guttmann P (1891). "Über die Wirkung des Methylenblau bei Malaria" [On the effect of methylene blue on malaria]. Berliner klinische Wochhenschrift[Berlin clinical Weekly] (in German). 28: 953–956. Archived from the original on 2017-02-17.
  75. ↑ Meissner PE, Mandi G, Coulibaly B, Witte S, Tapsoba T, Mansmann U, et al. (October 2006). "Methylene blue for malaria in Africa: results from a dose-finding study in combination with chloroquine". Malaria Journal. 5: 84. doi: 10.1186/1475-2875-5-84 . PMC   1617109 . PMID   17026773.
  76. ↑ Fiore K (27 July 2016). "Tau Drug Flops in Study". MedPage Today, LLC. Archived from the original on 1 August 2016.
  77. ↑ "In First Phase 3 Trial, the Tau Drug LMTM Did Not Work. Period". Alzforum. 29 July 2016.
  78. ↑ Alda M, McKinnon M, Blagdon R, Garnham J, MacLellan S, O'Donovan C, et al. (January 2017). "Methylene blue treatment for residual symptoms of bipolar disorder: randomised crossover study". The British Journal of Psychiatry. 210 (1): 54–60. doi: 10.1192/bjp.bp.115.173930 . PMID   27284082.
  79. ↑ Tardivo JP, Del Giglio A, Paschoal LH, Baptista MS (August 2006). "New photodynamic therapy protocol to treat AIDS-related Kaposi's sarcoma". Photomedicine and Laser Surgery. 24 (4): 528–531. doi:10.1089/pho.2006.24.528. PMID   16942436.
  80. ↑ Papin JF, Floyd RA, Dittmer DP (November 2005). "Methylene blue photoinactivation abolishes West Nile virus infectivity in vivo". Antiviral Research. 68 (2): 84–87. doi:10.1016/j.antiviral.2005.07.001. PMID   16118025.
  81. ↑ Zolfaghari PS, Packer S, Singer M, Nair SP, Bennett J, Street C, Wilson M (February 2009). "In vivo killing of Staphylococcus aureus using a light-activated antimicrobial agent". BMC Microbiology. 9: 27. doi: 10.1186/1471-2180-9-27 . PMC   2642833 . PMID   19193212.
  82. ↑ Floyd RA, Schneider JE, Dittmer DP (March 2004). "Methylene blue photoinactivation of RNA viruses". Antiviral Research. 61 (3): 141–151. doi:10.1016/j.antiviral.2003.11.004. PMID   15168794.
  83. ↑ Wagner SJ, Skripchenko A, Robinette D, Mallory DA, Hirayama J, Cincotta L, Foley J (2000). "The use of dimethylmethylene blue for virus photoinactivation of red cell suspensions". Developments in Biologicals. 102: 125–129. PMID   10794099.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.