Sit-in movement

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Sit-in movement
Part of the Civil Rights Movement
Civil Rights protesters and Woolworth's Sit-In, Durham, NC, 10 February 1960. From the N&O Negative Collection, State Archives of North Carolina, Raleigh, NC. Photos taken by The News & (24495308926).jpg
Student sit-in at Woolworth in Durham, North Carolina on February 10, 1960
DateFebruary 1, 1960 – 1964
Location
United States
Caused by
Parties
Student activists
Segregated businesses

The sit-in movement, sit-in campaign, or student sit-in movement, was a wave of sit-ins that followed the Greensboro sit-ins on February 1, 1960, led by students at North Carolina Agricultural and Technical Institute (A&T). [1] The sit-in movement employed the tactic of nonviolent direct action and was a pivotal event during the Civil Rights Movement. [2]

Contents

African-American college students attending historically Black colleges and universities in the United States powered the sit-in movement across the country. Many students across the country followed by example, as sit-ins provided a powerful tool for students to use to attract attention. [3] The students of Baltimore made use of this in 1960 when many used the efforts to desegregate department store restaurants, which proved to be successful lasting about three weeks. This was one small role Baltimore played in the civil rights movement of the 1960s. The city facilitated social movements as it saw bus and taxi companies hiring African Americans in 1951–1952. [4] Sit-ins also frequented segregated facilities in Oklahoma City between 1958 and 1964. [5]

Students at Morgan State College in Baltimore, Maryland, successfully deployed sit-ins and other direct action protest tactics against lunch counters in the city since at least 1953. One notable successful student sit-in occurred in 1955 at Read's Drug Store. [6] Despite also being led by students and successfully resulting in the end of segregation at a store lunch counter, the Read's Drug Store sit-in would not receive the same level of attention that was later given to the Greensboro sit-ins. [7] Two store lunch counter sit-ins which occurred in Wichita, Kansas and Oklahoma City, Oklahoma in 1958 also proved successful, and would employ tactics that were in fact similar to the future Greensboro sit-ins. [8] [9] The local chapter of the Congress of Racial Equality had had similar success. Witnessing the unprecedented visibility afforded in the white-oriented mainstream media to the 1960 sit-ins in Greensboro, North Carolina, Morgan students (and others, including those from the Johns Hopkins University) continued sit-in campaigns already underway at department store restaurants near their campus. There were massive amounts of support from the community for the student’s efforts, but more importantly, white involvement and support grew in favor of the desegregation of department store restaurants. [10]

Additional image of Civil Rights protestors executing a sit-in at a Woolworth's in Durham, North Carolina on February 10th of 1960. Civil Rights protesters and Woolworth's Sit-In, Durham, NC, 10 February 1960. From the N&O Negative Collection, State Archives of North Carolina, Raleigh, NC. Photos taken by The News & (24413211092).jpg
Additional image of Civil Rights protestors executing a sit-in at a Woolworth's in Durham, North Carolina on February 10th of 1960.

Sit-ins were by far the most prominent in 1960, however, they were still a useful tactic in the civil rights movement in the years following. In February 1961, students from Friendship Junior College in Rock Hill, South Carolina, organized a sit-in at a segregated lunch counter. The students were then arrested and refused to pay bail. This was part of their "Jail, No Bail" strategy [11] , they instead decided to serve jail time as a demonstration of their commitment to the civil rights movement.

An additional important event in the process of granting civil rights was the sit-ins that occurred in Albany, Georgia. These sit-ins were useful tactics that started in December 1961. They used sit-ins, boycotts, and marches to achieve their goal of ending segregation in public facilities. The Freedom Rides of 1961 also played a crucial role, with activists. Participating in sit-ins at segregated bus terminals across the South to challenge segregation in interstate transportation. This and other strong actions helped propel momentum and eventually helped lead to the removal of segregation laws in the United States. [12]

The sit-ins in Greensboro invigorated U.S. civil rights movements by reinforcing the success of other protests like the Montgomery bus boycott, which had shown how effectively a mass of people could change public opinions and governmental policies. [13]

List of sit-ins

Precursors to sit-in movement

Start dateSit-in(s)LocationRef.Notes
August 21, 1939 Alexandria Library sit-in Alexandria, Virginia [14] [15] [note 1]
1943Chicago Chicago, Illinois [16] [note 2]
July 1948 Des Moines Katz Drugstore protests Des Moines, Iowa [17]
1953Baltimore Baltimore, Maryland
1954Dresden Dresden, Ontario, Canada [18]
January 20, 1955Read's Drug Store Baltimore, Maryland [19] [20] [note 3]
June 23, 1957 Royal Ice Cream sit-in Durham, North Carolina [21] [note 4]
July 19, 1958 Dockum Drug Store sit-in Wichita, Kansas [22]
August 19, 1958 Katz Drug Store sit-in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma [23] [22] [note 5]
1959Miami Miami, Florida

Beginning with Greensboro sit-ins

Start date (1960)Sit-in(s)University or College studentsStateRef.Notes
February 1 Greensboro sit-ins North Carolina A&T State University North Carolina [24] [25]
February 8Durham North Carolina College [25]
Fayetteville Fayetteville State Teachers College [25]
Winston-Salem Winston-Salem Teachers College [25]
February 9Charlotte Johnson C. Smith University [25]
Concord Barber–Scotia College [25]
Elizabeth City Elizabeth City State Teachers College [25]
Henderson [25]
High Point [25]
February 10Raleigh Saint Augustine's College [25]
Shaw University
February 11Hampton Hampton University Virginia [25]
Portsmouth [25]
High Point William Penn High School North Carolina [26]
February 12Rock Hill Clinton Junior College South Carolina [25]
Norfolk Virginia [25] [27]
February 13 Nashville sit-ins Fisk University Tennessee [25] [note 6]
Tallahassee Florida A&M University Florida [25] [28]
Florida State University
February 14Sumter Morris College South Carolina [25]
February 16Salisbury Livingstone College North Carolina [25]
February 17Chapel Hill [25]
February 18Charleston South Carolina [25]
Shelby North Carolina [25]
February 19Chattanooga Tennessee [25] [29]
February 20Richmond Virginia Union University Virginia [25] [30] [note 7]
February 22Baltimore Coppin State Teachers College Maryland [25]
Frankfort State Normal School for Colored Persons Kentucky [25]
February 25Montgomery Alabama State College Alabama [25] [note 8]
Orangeburg Claflin College South Carolina [25]
February 26Lexington Kentucky [25]
Petersburg Virginia State College Virginia [25]
Tuskegee Tuskegee Institute Alabama [25]
February 27Tampa Florida [25]
March 2Columbia Allen University South Carolina [25]
Benedict College
Daytona Beach Bethune–Cookman College Florida [25]
St. Petersburg [25]
March 4Houston Texas Southern University Texas [25] [31] [note 9]
Miami Florida Memorial College Florida [25]
March 7Knoxville Knoxville College Tennessee [25] [35] [36]
March 8New Orleans Dillard University Louisiana [25]
Southern University
March 10Little Rock Arkansas Baptist College Arkansas [25]
March 11Austin Huston–Tillotson College Texas [25]
Galveston [25]
March 12Jacksonville Edward Waters College Florida [25]
March 13San Antonio Texas [25]
March 15 Atlanta sit-ins Clark College Georgia [25] [37] [note 10]
Morehouse College
Morris Brown College
Spelman College
Orangeburg South Carolina State University South Carolina [38] [note 11]
Claflin College
Corpus Christi Texas [25]
St. Augustine Florida [25]
Statesville North Carolina [25]
March 16 Savannah Savannah State College Georgia [25]
March 17New Bern North Carolina [25]
March 19Memphis Owen Junior College Tennessee [25]
Wilmington North Carolina [25]
Arlington Virginia [25]
March 26Lynchburg Randolph-Macon Woman's College; Lynchburg College; and Virginia Theological Seminary and College Virginia [25] [39]
March 28Baton Rouge Southern University Louisiana [25] [note 12]
New Orleans Xavier University [25]
March 29Marshall Wiley College Texas [25] [40]
March 31Birmingham Wenonah State Technical Institute Alabama [25]
Miles College
April 2Danville Virginia [25]
April 4Darlington South Carolina [25]
April 9Augusta Paine College Georgia [25]
April 12Norfolk Virginia State College (Norfolk Division) Virginia [25]
April 17Biloxi Mississippi [25]
April 23Starkville [25]
April 24CharlestonBurke High School South Carolina [25] [41] [note 13]
April 28Dallas Paul Quinn College Texas [25]
June 17Baltimore Maryland [25] [42] [note 14]

Related post-1960 sit-ins

DateSit-in(s)LocationRef.Notes
September 11, 1960El Charro Mexican Restaurant Flagstaff, Arizona [44]
January 31, 1961Rock Hill South Carolina [note 15]
1962 Sewanee, Tennessee [note 16]
May 28, 1963Woolworth's Jackson, Mississippi [46] [47] [note 17]
March 7, 1964Audubon Regional Library Clinton, Louisiana [48] [note 18]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Five men participated in the sit-in organized by Samuel Wilbert Tucker.
  2. ↑ Led by Congress of Racial Equality (CORE).
  3. ↑ The sit-in was conducted at Read's Drug Store.
  4. ↑ Participants include Douglas E. Moore.
  5. ↑ Participants include Clara Luper.
  6. ↑ Participants during the February 20, 17 include Patricia Stephens.
  7. ↑ 34 students would participate and be arrested. They became known as the Richmond 34.
  8. ↑ The sit-in targeted a state capitol cafeteria and was led by Bernard Lee accompanied by three dozen students.
  9. ↑ Participants include Texas Southern University student and leader Holly Hogrobrooks. Also see Ku Klux Klan victim Felton Turner. [32] [33] [34]
  10. ↑ Participants include Morehouse College student Charles Person.
  11. ↑ Resulted in the largest mass arrest (388) of the Civil Rights Movement up to that point.
  12. ↑ Sit-in led to Garner v. Louisiana (1961) case.
  13. ↑ Led by James Blake and occurred at the Kress store on King Street.
  14. ↑ Sit-in led to Bell v. Maryland (1964) case that involved Robert M. Bell. [43]
  15. ↑ Students from Friendship Junior College protested. A group of nine students known as the Friendship Nine would use the "jail no bail" tactic later duplicated by other protestors. The sit-in is regarded as the first to use the tactic, but Christopher W. Schmidt challenges this assertion. Patricia Stephens Due is sometimes credited as the first to use the tactic. [45]
  16. ↑ Participants include Bruce W. Klunder.
  17. ↑ Participants include Pearlena Lewis and Anne Moody.
  18. ↑ Sit-in led to Brown v. Louisiana (1966) case.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sit-in</span> Form of direct action

A sit-in or sit-down is a form of direct action that involves one or more people occupying an area for a protest, often to promote political, social, or economic change. The protestors gather conspicuously in a space or building, refusing to move unless their demands are met. The often clearly visible demonstrations are intended to spread awareness among the public, or disrupt the goings-on of the protested organisation. Lunch counter sit-ins were a nonviolent form of protest used to oppose segregation during the civil rights movement, and often provoked heckling and violence from those opposed to their message.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Greensboro sit-ins</span> 1960 non-violent protests in the United States

The Greensboro sit-ins were a series of nonviolent protests in February to July 1960, primarily in the Woolworth store—now the International Civil Rights Center and Museum—in Greensboro, North Carolina, which led to the F. W. Woolworth Company department store chain removing its policy of racial segregation in the Southern United States. While not the first sit-in of the civil rights movement, the Greensboro sit-ins were an instrumental action, and also the best-known sit-ins of the civil rights movement. They are considered a catalyst to the subsequent sit-in movement, in which 70,000 people participated. This sit-in was a contributing factor in the formation of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nashville sit-ins</span> Nonviolent protests against racial segregation in Tennessee (1960)

The Nashville sit-ins, which lasted from February 13 to May 10, 1960, were part of a protest to end racial segregation at lunch counters in downtown Nashville, Tennessee. The sit-in campaign, coordinated by the Nashville Student Movement and the Nashville Christian Leadership Council, was notable for its early success and its emphasis on disciplined nonviolence. It was part of a broader sit-in movement that spread across the southern United States in the wake of the Greensboro sit-ins in North Carolina.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Read's Drug Store</span> Chain of stores

Read's Drug Store was a chain of stores based in Baltimore, Maryland. Read's Drug Store was founded by William Read. He sold it to the Nattans family in 1899. The downtown store was constructed in 1934 by Smith & May, Baltimore architects also responsible for the Bank of America building at 10 Light St. In 1929, one company slogan was "Run Right to Reads." Read's was purchased from the Nattans by Rite Aid in 1983.

The Friendship Nine, or Rock Hill Nine, was a group of African-American men who went to jail after staging a sit-in at a segregated McCrory's lunch counter in Rock Hill, South Carolina in 1961. The group gained nationwide attention because they followed the 1960 Nashville sit-ins strategy of "Jail, No Bail", which lessened the huge financial burden civil rights groups were facing as the sit-in movement spread across the South. They became known as the Friendship Nine because eight of the nine men were students at Rock Hill's Friendship Junior College.

Jibreel Khazan is a civil rights activist who is best known as a member of the Greensboro Four, a group of African American college students who, on February 1, 1960, sat down at a segregated Woolworth's lunch counter in downtown Greensboro, North Carolina challenging the store's policy of denying service to non-white customers. The protests and the subsequent events were major milestones in the Civil Rights Movement.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Clarence Harris</span>

Clarence Lee "Curly" Harris was the store manager at the F. W. Woolworth Company store in Greensboro, North Carolina, during the Greensboro sit-ins in 1960.

Douglas E. Moore was a Methodist minister who organized the 1957 Royal Ice Cream Sit-in in Durham, North Carolina. Moore entered the ministry at a young age. After finding himself dissatisfied with what he perceived as a lack of action among his divinity peers, he decided to take a more activist course. Shortly after becoming a pastor in Durham, Moore decided to challenge the city's power structure via the Royal Ice Cream Sit-in, a protest in which he and several others sat down in the white section of an ice cream parlor and asked to be served. The sit-in failed to challenge segregation in the short run, and Moore's actions provoked a myriad of negative reactions from many white and African-American leaders, who considered his efforts far too radical. Nevertheless, Moore continued to press forward with his agenda of activism.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Clara Luper</span> American civic leader

Clara Shepard Luper was a civic leader, schoolteacher, and pioneering leader in the American Civil Rights Movement. She is best known for her leadership role in the 1958 Oklahoma City sit-in movement, as she, her young son and daughter, and numerous young members of the NAACP Youth Council successfully conducted carefully planned nonviolent sit-in protests of downtown drugstore lunch-counters, which overturned their policies of segregation. The success of this sit-in would result in Luper becoming a leader of various sit-ins throughout Oklahoma City between 1958 and 1964. The Clara Luper Corridor is a streetscape and civic beautification project from the Oklahoma Capitol area east to northeast Oklahoma City. In 1972, Clara Luper was an Oklahoma candidate for election to the United States Senate. When asked by the press if she, a black woman, could represent white people, she responded: “Of course, I can represent white people, black people, red people, yellow people, brown people, and polka dot people. You see, I have lived long enough to know that people are people.”

The NAACP Youth Council is a branch of the NAACP in which youth are actively involved. In past years, council participants organized under the council's name to make major strides in the Civil Rights Movement. Started in 1935 by Juanita E. Jackson, special assistant to Walter White and the first NAACP Youth secretary, the NAACP National Board of Directors formally created the Youth and College Division in March 1936.

The Atlanta Student Movement was formed in February 1960 in Atlanta by students of the campuses Atlanta University Center (AUC). It was led by the Committee on the Appeal for Human Rights (COAHR) and was part of the Civil Rights Movement.

The Dockum Drug Store sit-in was one of the first organized lunch counter sit-ins for the purpose of integrating segregated establishments in the United States. The protest began on July 19, 1958 in downtown Wichita, Kansas, at a Dockum Drug Store, in which protesters would sit at the counter all day until the store closed, ignoring taunts from counter-protesters. The sit-in ended three weeks later when the owner relented and agreed to serve black patrons. Though it wasn't the first sit-in, it is notable for happening before the well known 1960 Greensboro sit-ins.

The Richmond 34 refers to a group of Virginia Union University students who participated in a nonviolent sit-in at the lunch counter of Thalhimers department store in downtown Richmond, Virginia. The event was one of many sit-ins to occur throughout the civil rights movement in the 1960s and was essential to helping desegregate the city of Richmond.

The Royal Ice Cream sit-in was a nonviolent protest in Durham, North Carolina, that led to a court case on the legality of segregated facilities. The demonstration took place on June 23, 1957 when a group of African American protesters, led by Reverend Douglas E. Moore, entered the Royal Ice Cream Parlor and sat in the section reserved for white patrons. When asked to move, the protesters refused and were arrested for trespassing. The case was appealed unsuccessfully to the County and State Superior Courts.

February One is the name of the 2002 monument dedicated to Ezell Blair Jr., Franklin McCain, Joseph McNeil and David Richmond who were collectively known as the Greensboro Four. The 15-foot bronze and marble monument is located on the western edge of the campus of North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University in Greensboro, North Carolina. James Barnhill, the sculptor who created the monument, was inspired by the historic 1960 image of the four college aged men leaving the downtown Greensboro Woolworth store after holding a sit-in protest of the company's policy of segregating its lunch counters. The sit-in protests were a significant event in the Civil Rights Movement due to increasing national sentiment of the fight for the civil rights of African-Americans during this period in American history.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">David Richmond (activist)</span> American civil rights activist (1941–1990)

David Leinail Richmond was a civil rights activist for most of his life, but he was best known for being one of the Greensboro Four. Richmond was a student at North Carolina A&T during the time of the Greensboro protests, but never ended up graduating from A&T. He felt pressure from the residual celebrity of being one of the Greensboro Four; his life was threatened in Greensboro and he was forced to move to Franklin, NC. Eventually, he moved back to Greensboro to take care of his father. Richmond was awarded the Levi Coffin Award for leadership in human rights by the Greensboro Chamber of Commerce in 1980. Richmond seemed to be haunted by the fact that he could not do more to improve his world, and battled alcoholism and depression. He died in 1990 and was awarded a posthumous honorary doctorate degree from North Carolina A&T

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Houston's First Sit-in March 4, 1960</span> Protest in Houston, Texas

Houston's first sit-in was held Friday, March 4, 1960 at the Weingarten's grocery store lunch counter located at 4110 Almeda Road in Houston, Texas. This sit-in was a nonviolent, direct action protest led by more than a dozen Texas Southern University students. The sit-in was organized to protest Houston's legal segregation laws. The students met on Texas Southern University's campus and the YMCA located on Wheeler Street to organize the sit-in. They called their meetings 'war room' sessions. In these sessions, the students strategized like a military unit on how they would dismantle Houston's disenfranchisement laws. They believed that their peaceful approach was a tactic that would break Houston's discriminatory practices. It worked. The students called themselves the Progressive Youth Association (PYA). PYA was formed to address the social, political and economic issues that African-Americans faced in Houston. The Houston collegians were inspired by students at North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University, who held a sit-in in Greensboro, North Carolina on February 1, 1960.

The Katz Drug Store sit-in was one of the first sit-ins during the civil rights movement, occurring between August 19 and August 21, 1958, in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. In protest of racial discrimination, black schoolchildren sat at a lunch counter with their teacher demanding food, refusing to leave until they were served. They sought to end the racial segregation of eating places in their city, sparking a sit-in movement in Oklahoma City that lasted for years.

The New Year's Day March in Greenville, South Carolina was a 1,000-man march that protested the segregated facilities at the Greenville Municipal Airport, now renamed the Greenville Downtown Airport. The march occurred after Richard Henry and Jackie Robinson were prohibited from using a white-only waiting room at the airport. The march was the first large-scale movement of the civil rights movement in South Carolina and Greenville. The march brought state-wide attention to segregation, and the case Henry v. Greenville Airport Commission (1961) ultimately required the airport's integration of its facilities.

The Atlanta sit-ins were a series of sit-ins that took place in Atlanta, Georgia, United States. Occurring during the sit-in movement of the larger civil rights movement, the sit-ins were organized by the Committee on Appeal for Human Rights, which consisted of students from the Atlanta University Center. The sit-ins were inspired by the Greensboro sit-ins, which had started a month earlier in Greensboro, North Carolina with the goal of desegregating the lunch counters in the city. The Atlanta protests lasted for almost a year before an agreement was made to desegregate the lunch counters in the city.

References

  1. ↑ Kowal, Rebekah J. (2004). "Staging the Greensboro Sit-Ins". TDR (1988-). 48 (4): 135–154. ISSN   1054-2043.
  2. ↑ Flowers, Deidre B. (January 2005). "The Launching of the Student Sit-in Movement: The Role of Black Women at Bennett College". The Journal of African American History. 90 (1–2): 52–63. doi:10.1086/jaahv90n1-2p52. ISSN   1548-1867. S2CID   140781391.
  3. ↑ "The Sit-In Movement [ushistory.org]". www.ushistory.org. Retrieved April 30, 2019.
  4. ↑ William H. Chafe (April 1982). "Civilities and Civil Rights: Greensboro, North Carolina, and the Black Struggle for Freedom". The American Historical Review. New York: Oxford University Press: xii, 436. doi:10.1086/ahr/87.2.565. ISSN   1937-5239.
  5. ↑ "60 Years Later, Oklahoma's Sit-In Movement is Remembered". The Oklahoman . August 12, 2018.
  6. ↑ Liu, Nancy (September 11, 2011). "Baltimore, MD, students sit-in to integrate Read's drug stores, USA, 1955". Global Nonviolent Action Database. Swarthmore. Retrieved May 25, 2023.
  7. ↑ Pousson, Eli. "Read's Drug Store". baltimoreheritage.org. Retrieved May 25, 2023.
  8. ↑ "Dockum Drug Store Sit-In". Kansas Historical Society. Retrieved May 25, 2023.
  9. ↑ Backburn, Bob L. (July 29, 2018). "African-American history in Oklahoma contains sit-ins, soldiers, entrepreneurs and more". The Oklahoman. Retrieved May 25, 2023.
  10. ↑ "Baltimore Sit-Ins". Nonviolent Datebase.
  11. ↑ Schmidt, Christopher W. (2015). "Divided by Law: The Sit-ins and the Role of the Courts in the Civil Rights Movement". Law and History Review. 33 (1): 93–149. ISSN   0738-2480.
  12. ↑ Colaiaco, James A. (1988), "The Lessons of Albany, Georgia, 1961–2", Martin Luther King, Jr., London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, pp. 40–53, ISBN   978-1-349-08225-4 , retrieved April 15, 2024
  13. ↑ Kowal, Rebekah J. (2004). "Staging the Greensboro Sit-Ins". TDR (1988-). 48 (4): 135–154. ISSN   1054-2043.
  14. ↑ Mitchell-Powell, Brenda (2017). "The 1939 Alexandria, Virginia, Public Library Sit-in Demonstration". In Kimball, Melanie A.; Wisser, Katherine M. (eds.). Libraries – Traditions and Innovations: Papers from the Library History Seminar XIII. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. pp. 70–99. ISBN   9783110448566.
  15. ↑ Smith, J. Douglas (2003). Managing White Supremacy: Race, Politics, and Citizenship in Jim Crow Virginia. University of North Carolina Press. pp. 259–270. ISBN   9780807862261.
  16. ↑ Shah, Aarushi H. (November 2012). "All of Africa Will Be Free Before We Can Get a Lousy Cup of Coffee: The Impact of the 1943 Lunch Counter Sit-Ins on the Civil Rights Movement". The History Teacher. 46 (1): 127–147.
  17. ↑ "State v. Katz, 241 Iowa 115 | Casetext Search + Citator". casetext.com. Retrieved October 22, 2023.
  18. ↑ Lambertson, Ross (2001). ""The Dresden Story": Racism, Human Rights, and the Jewish Labour Committee of Canada". Journal of Canadian Labour Studies. 47: 43–82.
  19. ↑ Gunts, Edward (February 8, 2011). "Read's Drugstore Flap Brings Baltimore Civil Rights History to Life". Baltimore Sun. Retrieved December 26, 2016.
  20. ↑ "Why the West Side Matters: Read's Drug Store and Baltimore's Civil Rights Heritage". Baltimore Heritage. January 7, 2011. Retrieved December 26, 2016.
  21. ↑ Greene, Christina (2006). Our Separate Ways: Women and the Black Freedom Movement in Durham, North Carolina. University of North Carolina Press. pp. 65–69. ISBN   9780807876374.
  22. 1 2 Walters, Ronald (Spring 1996). "The Great Plains Sit In Movement, 1958–60". Great Plains Quarterly. 16: 85–94.
  23. ↑ Graves, Carl R. (Summer 1981). "The Right to Be Served: Oklahoma City's Lunch Counter Sit-ins, 1958–1964". Chronicles of Oklahoma. 59 (2): 152–155.
  24. ↑ Chafe, William Henry (1981). "The Sit-Ins Begin". Civilities and Civil Rights: Greensboro, North Carolina, and the Black Struggle for Freedom. Oxford University Press. pp. 71–101. ISBN   9780195029192.
  25. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 "The Sit-in Movement". International Civil Rights Center & Museum. Retrieved March 20, 2016.
  26. ↑ "Civil Rights". williampennproject. Retrieved November 15, 2019.
  27. ↑ "Hampton Roads Heritage Project". Norfolk Public Library. Retrieved January 1, 2017.
  28. ↑ White, Robert Melvin (1964). The Tallahassee Sit-ins and CORE, a Nonviolent Revolutionary Submovement (Ph.D.). Florida State University. OCLC   7563086.
  29. ↑ Harris, Jessie (2011). Unfamiliar Streets: The Chattanooga Sit-ins, the Local Press, and the Concern for Civilities (M.A. thesis). Virginia Commonwealth University. OCLC   727069042.
  30. ↑ Wallenstein, Peter (2013). "To Sit or Not to Sit: Scenes in Richmond from the Civil Rights Movement". Blue Laws and Black Codes: Conflict, Courts, and Change in Twentieth-Century Virginia. University of Virginia Press. pp. 114–141. ISBN   9780813924878.
  31. ↑ Jensen, F. Kenneth (1992). "The Houston Sit-In Movement of 1960–61". In Beeth, Howard; Wintz, Cary D. (eds.). Black Dixie: Afro-Texan History and Culture in Houston. Texas A&M University Press. ISBN   9780890964941.
  32. ↑ Causey, Causey (February 3, 2016). "Houston Civil Rights Pioneer Holly Hogrobrooks Dies at 75". Chron.com. Houston Chronicle. Retrieved December 15, 2016.
  33. ↑ "Houston Student Movement" . Retrieved December 15, 2016.
  34. ↑ Berman, David; Cole, Thomas R. (1998). The Strange Demise of Jim Crow: How Houston Desegregated Its Public Accommodations, 1959–1963 (Video recording). California Newsreel. OCLC   44721721.
  35. ↑ Fleming, Cynthia Griggs (Spring 1990). "White Lunch Counters and Black Consciousness: The Story of the Knoxville Sit-ins". Tennessee Historical Quarterly. 49 (1): 40–52.
  36. ↑ Zagumny, Lisa L. (Winter 2001). "Sit-Ins in Knoxville, Tennessee: A Case Study of Political Rhetoric". The Journal of Negro History. 86 (1): 45–54. doi:10.2307/1350178. JSTOR   1350178. S2CID   141496195.
  37. ↑ Garrow, David J. (1989). Atlanta Georgia, 1960–1961: Sit Ins and Student Activism. Carlson Publishing. ISBN   9780926019058.
  38. ↑ Hine, William C. (October 1996). "Civil Rights and Campus Wrongs". South Carolina Historical Magazine. 97 (4): 320.
  39. ↑ "Remembering the Patterson Six: A decision to make a stand for civil rights earned two R-MWC students jail time—and a spot in history". News and Events. December 14, 2020. Retrieved March 1, 2023.
  40. ↑ Seals, Donald Jr. (January 2003). "The Wiley-Bishop Student Movement: A Case Study in the 1960 Civil Rights Sit-Ins". The Southwestern Historical Quarterly. 106 (3): 418–440.
  41. ↑ Baker, R. Scott (2006). Paradoxes of Desegregation: African American Struggles for Educational Equity in Charleston, South Carolina, 1926–1972. University of South Carolina Press. pp. 142–143. ISBN   9781570036323.
  42. ↑ "Recalling a 1960 Baltimore Sit-in". Politico. Associated Press. October 27, 2013. Retrieved December 11, 2016.
  43. ↑ Reynolds, William L. (2002). "Foreword: The Legal History of the Great Sit-in Case of Bell v. Maryland". Maryland Law Review. 61 (4): 761–794.
  44. ↑ Hoyt, William (September 13, 1960). "'Sit-in' Protest in Flag Revealed at Council Meet". Arizona Daily Sun . p. 1. Retrieved October 9, 2023– via Newspapers.com.
  45. ↑ Schmidt, Christopher W. (February 2015). "Divided by Law: The Sit-ins and the Role of the Courts in the Civil Rights Movement". Law and History Review. 33 (1): 93–149. doi:10.1017/S0738248014000509. S2CID   232400894.
  46. ↑ Pettus, Emily Wagster (February 10, 2015). "Anne Moody, Sat Stoically at Violent Woolworth's Sit-in, Dies at 74". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved December 11, 2016.
  47. ↑ O'Brien, M. J. (2013). We Shall Not Be Moved: The Jackson Woolworth's Sit-In and the Movement It Inspired. University Press of Mississippi. ISBN   9781617037443.
  48. ↑ Battles, David M. (2008). The History of Public Library Access for African Americans in the South: Or, Leaving Behind the Plow. Scarecrow Press. pp. 137–138. ISBN   9781461672937.

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